Udindo wa mapuloteni m'thupi la munthu

Kufunika kwakukulu kwa mapuloteni a thupi ndi chifukwa cha ntchito zawo.

Ntchito zomwe mapuloteni adapereka zikuwonetsa kufunikira kwa gululi la zinthu kuti zitsimikizire moyo wabwinobwino wamunthu.

M'zaka za zana la 19, asayansi anati:

• matupi a protein ndi apadera, maziko a moyo,
• kagayidwe kosalekeza pakati pa zinthu zamoyo ndi chilengedwe ndikofunikira.

Zinthuzi sizisinthidwe mpaka pano.

Kupanga kwakukulu kwa mapuloteni

Mapulogalamu akuluakulu opanga mapuloteni osavuta otchedwa protein amapangidwa ndi ma cell ang'onoang'ono omwe amalumikizidwa - ma amino acid okhala ndi zidutswa zofanana. Nyimbo zoterezi zimatchedwa heteropolymers. Oimira 20 okha a kalasi ya amino acid omwe nthawi zonse amapezeka m'mapuloteni achilengedwe. Zomwe zimapangidwa ndi mapuloteni zimadziwika ndi kupezeka kwa mpweya - C, nayitrogeni - N, haidrojeni - H, oksijeni - O. Sulfur - S amapezeka nthawi zambiri. Momwemo, phosphorous - P, mkuwa - Cu, chitsulo - Fe, ayodini - I, selenium - Se akhoza kukhala nawo.

Maaminocarboxylic acid a mapuloteni achilengedwe amadziwika ndi kapangidwe kazinthu zamakemizidwe ndi kufunika kwachilengedwe. Kugawidwa kwa makemikolo ndikofunikira kwa amakhemikolo, kwachilengedwe - kwa aliyense.

Mu thupi la munthu mumakhala zinthu ziwiri zosintha:

• kusweka, kukhathamiritsa, kutulutsa zakudya,
• kwachilengedwe kapangidwe kazinthu zofunikira.

12 mwa ma amino acid omwe amapezeka nthawi zonse mumapuloteni achilengedwe amatha kupangidwa mwachilengedwe cha thupi la munthu. Amatchedwa kusinthika.

8 amino acid samapangidwa konse mwa anthu. Zofunikira kwambiri, ziziperekedwa pafupipafupi ndi chakudya.

Malinga ndi kukhalapo kwa ma amino-carboxylic acids ofunika, mapuloteni amagawidwa m'magulu awiri.

• Mapuloteni onse ali ndi amino acid ofunikira m'thupi la munthu. Zofunikira zofunikira za amino acid zimakhala ndi mapuloteni a tchizi, nyamayi, nkhuku, nyama ya ng'ombe, nsomba zam'madzi ndi mazira oyera, mazira.

• M'mapuloteni osalongosoka, asidi imodzi kapena zingapo zofunika kwambiri zikhoza kukhala zikusowa. Izi zimaphatikizapo mapuloteni azomera.

Kuti muwone kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni olimbitsa thupi, anthu azachipatala amawafanizira ndi mapuloteni "abwino", omwe adatsimikizira kuchuluka kwa mitundu yofunikira komanso yofunika kwambiri ya amino acid. M'chilengedwe, puloteni "wabwino" mulibemo. Pafupi naye ngati mapuloteni amanyama. Mapuloteni azomera nthawi zambiri samakhala okwanira amino acid zingapo. Ngati chinthu chomwe chikusowacho chikuwonjezeredwa, mapuloteniwo amakhala athunthu.

Gwero lalikulu la mapuloteni azomera ndi nyama

M'mabungwe asayansi apakhomo omwe amachita kafukufuku wamaphunziro azakudya, gulu la mapulofesa A.P. Nechaev, ogwira nawo ntchito, ndi ophunzira akuwonekera. Gululi lidatsimikiza zomwe zili mumapulogalamu azakudya zomwe zimapezeka pamsika waku Russia.

• Zofunika! Ziwerengero zodziwika zimadziwitsa za mapuloteni omwe ali mu 100 g ya malonda, omasulidwa ku gawo losaululika.

• Kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni ambiri amapezeka mu soya, nthanga za maungu, ndi mtedza (34.9 - 26.3 g).
• Magugu kuchokera pa 20 mpaka 30 magalamu amapezeka mu nandolo, nyemba, pistachios, ndi mbewu za mpendadzuwa.
• Maamondi, ma cashews, ma hazelnuts amadziwika ndi manambala kuyambira 15 mpaka 20 gr.
• Ma Walnuts, pasitala, mbewu zambiri (kupatula mpunga, grits za chimanga) zimakhala ndi magalamu 10 mpaka 15 a mapuloteni pa magalamu 100 aliwonse a chinthu.
• Mpunga, chimanga cha chimanga, buledi, adyo, maapricots owuma amagwera kuyambira 5 mpaka 10 gr.
• M'magalamu 100 a kabichi, bowa, mbatata, mitengo yamatchi, mitundu ina ya kachilomboka, mapuloteni amachokera 2 mpaka 5 magalamu.
• Zoumba, ma radishi, kaloti, tsabola wokoma amakhala ndi mapuloteni pang'ono, zizindikiro zawo sizidutsa 2 g.

Ngati simunathe kupeza chomera pano, ndiye kuti kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni mkati mwake ndi kotsika kwambiri kapena kulibe. Mwachitsanzo, m'masamba azipatso amapezeka mapuloteni ochepa, mumafuta achilengedwe azamasamba - ayi ayi.

• Pulogalamu yayikulu kwambiri yamapulogalamuyi idapezeka mu nsomba zamiyendo, zolimba komanso zopukutidwa, ndi nyama ya kalulu (kuyambira 21.1 mpaka 28.9 g).
• Zambiri mwa zinthu zimakhala ndi magalamu 15 mpaka 10 a protein. Iyi ndi mbalame, nsomba zam'nyanja (kupatula capelin), nyama ya ng'ombe, shirimpu, squid, tchizi chanyumba, tchizi chowonjezera, nsomba zam'madzi.
• Capelin, dzira la nkhuku, nkhumba imakhala ndi magalamu a 12,7 mpaka 15 a mapuloteni pa magalamu 100 aliwonse a chinthu.
• Yogurt, tchizi cha curd amadziwika ndi manambala 5 - 7.1 gr.
• Mkaka, kefir, mkaka wowotchera, wowawasa wowawasa, kirimu muli kuchokera ku magalamu 2.8 mpaka 3 a mapuloteni.

Zambiri pazomwe zimapanga mapuloteni azomera ndi nyama zomwe zimapezeka pazinthu zambiri zamatekinoloje (mphodza, soseji, nyama, masoseji) sizosangalatsa. Simalimbikitsidwa kudya pafupipafupi. Kugwiritsa ntchito mwachidule zinthu ngati izi sikofunikira.

Udindo wa mapuloteni muzakudya

Chifukwa cha kagayidwe kachakudya mthupi, mamolekyulu atsopano amapangidwa nthawi zonse, m'malo mwa akale. Mulingo wa kapangidwe ka ziwalo zosiyanasiyana siofanana. Mapuloteni a mahomoni, mwachitsanzo, insulin imabwezeretseka (kuyambiranso) mofulumira, m'maola, mphindi. Mapuloteni a chiwindi, matumbo a mucous zimapangidwanso masiku 10. Mapuloteni aubongo, minofu, minyewa yolumikizidwa imabwezeretseka kutalika kwambiri, kupuma kwamtundu wina (resynthesis) kumatha kukhala miyezi isanu ndi umodzi.

Njira yogwiritsira ntchito komanso kaphatikizidwe imadziwika ndi mulingo wa nayitrogeni.

• Mwa munthu wopangidwa ndi thanzi lathunthu, mulingo wa nayitrogeni ndi zero. Potere, unyinji wonse wa nayitrogeni womwe umaperekedwa ndi mapuloteni panthawi ya zakudya umakhala wofanana ndi misa yomwe yaphulitsidwa ndi zinthu zowola.
• Zamoyo zazing'ono zikukula mofulumira. Kuyesa kwa nayitrogeni ndi kwabwino. Pali mapuloteni ambiri, ocheperako amawachotsa.
• Mu ukalamba, odwala, mulingo wa nayitrogeni ndi wopanda pake. Kuchuluka kwa nayitrogeni womasulidwa ndi zinthu za metabolic ndi wamkulu kuposa womwe umalandira ndi chakudya.

Udindo wa mapuloteni muzakudya ndikupatsa munthu kuchuluka kwa zinthu zomwe zimafunikira amino acid zomwe zingakhale zoyenera kuchita nawo machitidwe amthupi.

Kuonetsetsa kuti kagayidwe kabwino, ndikofunikira kudziwa kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni omwe munthu ayenera kudya tsiku lililonse.

Akatswiri azachipatala a ku America ndi a ku America amalimbikitsa kudya 0,8 - 1 g ya mapuloteni pa 1 kg ya kulemera kwa munthu. Ziwerengero zimasinthidwa. Kuchuluka kwake kumatengera zaka, mtundu wa wantchito, moyo wa munthu. Pafupifupi, amalimbikitsa kudya kuyambira magalamu 60 mpaka 100 magalamu a mapuloteni patsiku. Kwa abambo omwe amagwira ntchito zolimbitsa thupi, chizolowezi chimatha kuwonjezeka mpaka magalamu 120 patsiku. Kwa omwe akuchitidwa opaleshoni, matenda opatsirana, mankhwalawa amawonjezeranso mpaka magalamu 140 patsiku. Anthu odwala matenda ashuga amalimbikitsidwa kuti azikhala ndi zakudya zopezeka ndi mapuloteni ambiri, zomwe zimatha kufikira 140g patsiku. Anthu omwe ali ndi vuto la kagayidwe kachakudya, kamakonda kuchita gout, ayenera kudya mapuloteni ochepa. Zowonjezera kwa iwo ndi 20 - 40 magalamu patsiku.

Kwa anthu omwe akuchita nawo masewera olimbitsa thupi omwe amawonjezera minofu, zomwe zimachulukanso, amatha kufikira magalamu 1.6-1.8 pa kilogalamu imodzi ya kulemera kwa osewera.

• Zofunika! Ndikofunika kuti wophunzitsayo afotokozere yankho la funsolo - ndi mapuloteni angati omwe ayenera kudya tsiku lililonse akamachita masewera olimbitsa thupi. Akatswiri ali ndi chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi mtengo wamagetsi wamitundu yonse yamaphunziro, njira zopangitsira magwiridwe antchito a thupi la othamanga.

Kuti kukhazikitsidwa kwa ntchito zonse zolimbitsa thupi, ndikofunikira, osati kukhalapo kwa ma amino acid ofunika m'mapuloteni, komanso kuthandizira kwawo. Ma mamolekyulu amapuloteni ali ndi magawo osiyanasiyana amtundu, sungunuka, kuchuluka kwa mphamvu zamagetsi. 96% ya mapuloteni amkaka, mazira amasweka bwino. Mu nyama, nsomba, 93-95% ya mapuloteni amawumbidwa bwino. Kusiyana kwake ndi mapuloteni a pakhungu ndi tsitsi. Zinthu zopangidwa ndi mapuloteni omwe amapezeka m'mimbamo ndi 60-80%. M'masamba, 80% ya mapuloteni omwe amawamwa, mbatata - 70%, mu mkate - 62-86%.

Gawo lolimbikitsidwa la mapuloteni ochokera kwazinyama liyenera kukhala 55% ya kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni onse.

• Kuperewera kwa mapuloteni m'thupi kumabweretsa kusintha kwakukulu kwa metabolic. Ma pathologies oterewa amatchedwa dystrophy, kwashiorkor. Kwa nthawi yoyamba, kuphwanya kunawululidwa mwa nzika zakutchire za Africa, zodziwika kuti sizili bwino ndi nayitrogeni, matenda am'mimba, minofu yolimba, komanso kukula kwabwino. Kuperewera kwakanthawi kwamapulogalamu kumatha kuchitika ndi zofananira, zomwe zingakhale zofatsa kwakanthawi. Choopsa kwambiri ndichakuti kusowa kwa mapuloteni mthupi la mwana. Mavuto azakudya oterewa amatha kudzetsa thupi komanso nzeru za munthu amene akukula.

• Mapuloteni ochulukirapo m'thupi amadzaza dongosolo la mawere. Katundu pa impso ukuwonjezeka. Ndi ma pathologies omwe alipo mu minyewa ya impso, njirayi imatha kukulitsidwa. Zimakhala zoyipa kwambiri ngati protein yambiri mthupi ikuphatikizidwa ndi kusowa kwa zakudya zina zofunika. Kale, m'maiko a Asia mudali njira yophera, pomwe womangidwa ankangodya nyama yokha. Zotsatira zake, wolakwayo adamwalira chifukwa chopanga zinthu zovunda m'matumbo, kutsatira poyizoni.

Njira yoyenera yoperekera thupi mapuloteni imatsimikizira kuti magwiridwe antchito onse azinthu.

Mbiri yophunzira

Mapuloteniwa adayamba kupezeka (mwa mawonekedwe a gluten) mu 1728 ndi Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari wa ku Italy kuchokera ku ufa wa tirigu. Mapuloteni adadzipatula kukhala gulu lina lama molekyulu achilengedwe m'zaka za m'ma 1800 chifukwa cha ntchito ya chemist wa ku France Antoine de Fourcroix ndi asayansi ena omwe adawona kuti mapuloteni amayambitsa (denature) motsogozedwa ndi kutentha kapena ma acid. Panthawiyo, mapuloteni monga albumin ("dzira loyera"), fibrin (mapuloteni ochokera m'magazi), ndi gluten ochokera ku mbewu za tirigu amafufuzidwa.

Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1800, zambiri zomwe zimapezeka m'mapuloteni; zinkadziwika kuti ma amino acid amapangidwa nthawi ya hydrolysis ya mapuloteni. Ena mwa awa amino acid (mwachitsanzo glycine ndi leucine) adadziwika kale. Kutengera pakupenda momwe mapuloteni amapangira mapuloteni, katswiri wama Dutch Derrit Mulder hypothesised kuti pafupifupi ma protein onse ali ndi formula yofananira. Mu 1836, Mulder adaganizira mtundu woyamba wa mapuloteni. Kutengera malingaliro a radicals, atasintha zina zambiri atazindikira kuti gawo laling'ono lamapuloteni lili ndi izi: C₄₀H₆₂N₁₀O₁₂. Adatcha gululi kuti "protein" (Pr) (kuchokera ku Greek. Zithunzi - woyamba, woyamba), ndi chiphunzitso - "theory protein". Mawu akuti "mapuloteni" pawokha adatanthauziridwa ndi wasayansi wina waku Sweden dzina lake Jacob Berzelius. Malinga ndi Mulder, protein iliyonse imakhala ndimapuloteni angapo, sulfure ndi phosphorous. Mwachitsanzo, adanenanso kuti alembe formula wa fibrin ngati 10PrSP. Mulder adafufuzanso zamomwe zinthu zowonongera mapuloteni - amino acid komanso m'modzi wa iwo (leucine) ndi gawo laling'ono lolakwitsa, adatsimikiza kulemera kwa maselo - 131 daltons. Ndi kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni atsopano pamapuloteni, chiphunzitso cha mapuloteni chinayamba kutsutsidwa, koma, ngakhale izi, mpaka kumapeto kwa 1850s chinali chodziwikiratu padziko lonse lapansi.

Pakutha kwa zaka za m'ma 1800, ma amino acid ambiri omwe amapanga mapuloteni adafufuzidwa. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1880. Wasayansi waku Russia A. Ya.Danilevsky adazindikira kupezeka kwa magulu a peptide (CO - NH) mu molekyulu ya mapuloteni. Mu 1894, katswiri wazolimbitsa thupi wa ku Germany, Albrecht Kossel, adatsogola chiphunzitso kutanthauza kuti ma amino acid ndi omwe amapanga mapuloteni. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1900, katswiri wazamankhwala ku Germany, Emil Fischer, adatsimikizira kuti mapuloteni amakhala ndi zotsalira za amino acid zolumikizidwa ndi ma peptide. Anapanganso kusanthula koyamba kwa kuphatikiza mapuloteni a amino acid ndikuwonetsa chodabwitsa cha proteinol.

Komabe, gawo lalikulu la mapuloteni m'zamoyo silinazindikiridwe mpaka 1926, pomwe katswiri wina wama US James Sumner (yemwe pambuyo pake anali mphotho ya Nobel mu Chemistry) adawonetsa kuti urease enzyme ndi puloteni.

Zovuta pakupatula mapuloteni oyera adapangitsa kuti zikhale zovuta kuphunzira. Chifukwa chake, kafukufuku woyamba adachitidwa pogwiritsa ntchito ma polypeptides amenewa omwe amatha kuyeretsedwa mosavuta, ndiko kuti, mapuloteni amwazi, mazira a nkhuku, poizoni zosiyanasiyana, komanso ma enzymage / ma metabolic omwe adatulutsidwa pambuyo pakupha ng'ombe. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1950, kampaniyo Armor Hot Galu Co adatha kuyeretsa kilogalamu imodzi ya bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A, yomwe yakhala poyesera maphunziro ambiri.

Lingaliro loti mapangidwe apawiri a mapuloteni ndi omwe adachitika chifukwa cha kupangidwa kwa ma hydrogen binds pakati pa mabungwe a amino acid adayikidwa patsogolo ndi William Astbury mu 1933, koma a Linus Pauling amawonedwa ngati wasayansi woyamba yemwe adatha kuneneratu zakumapangidwe kwachiwiri kwa mapuloteni. Pambuyo pake, Walter Kauzman, podalira ntchito ya Kai Linnerstrom-Lang, adathandizira kwambiri pakumvetsetsa malamulo opanga mapangidwe apamwamba a mapuloteni komanso gawo la kayendedwe ka hydrophobic pakuchita izi. Chakumapeto kwa m'ma 1940 ndi koyambirira kwa zaka za m'ma 1950, Frederick Senger adapanga njira yotsatirira mapuloteni, pomwe adatsimikiza kuchuluka kwa amino acid maunyolo awiri a insulin pofika 1955, kuwonetsa kuti mapuloteniwa ndi ma polima a ma amino acid, osakhala nthambi (monga shuga wina) ) maunyolo, ma calloids kapena ma cyclols. Mapuloteni oyamba, gulu la amino acid lomwe linakhazikitsidwa ndi asayansi aku Soviet / Russia, linali mu 1972 aspartate aminotransferase.

Mapulogalamu oyamba a mapuloteni omwe adapangidwa ndi X-ray diffraction (kusanthula kwa X-ray) adadziwika kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1950 ndi koyambirira kwa zaka zam' 1960, ndipo zida zopezeka ndi mphamvu ya nyukiliya yomwe idapangidwanso m'ma 1980s. Mu 2012, Protein Data Bank inali ndi mapulaneti pafupifupi 87,000.

M'zaka zam'ma 2000, kafukufuku wa mapuloteni wasunthira pamlingo wina watsopano, pomwe samaphunziridwa mapuloteni amodzi okha, komanso kusintha komwe kumasintha kwa kuchuluka ndi kusintha kwakumasulira kwa kuchuluka kwamapuloteni a maselo amodzi, matupi kapena zinthu zonse. Gawo la biochemistry lotchedwa proteinomics. Kugwiritsa ntchito njira za bioinformatics, zakhala zotheka osati kungochita zowerengera za mawonekedwe a X-ray, komanso kuneneratu kapangidwe ka mapuloteni potengera momwe amino acid imayendera. Pakadali pano, ma cryoelectron ma microscopy akulu mapuloteni akuluakulu komanso kuneneratu kwa zomanga zam'mapuloteni omwe amagwiritsa ntchito mapulogalamu amakompyuta akuyandikira kulondola kwa atomiki.

Kukula kwamapuloteni kumatha kuyezedwa potengera zotsalira za amino acid kapena ma daltons (kulemera kwamankhwala), koma chifukwa cha kukula kwa molekyu, kuchuluka kwamapuloteni kumawonetsedwa m'magawo otengedwa - kilodaltons (kDa). Mapuloteni a yisiti, pafupifupi, amakhala ndi zotsalira 466 amino acid ndipo ali ndi kulemera kwamankhwala okwana 53 kDa. Puloteni yayikulu kwambiri yomwe ikudziwika - titin - ndi gawo la sarcomeres, minofu kulemera kwake kosiyanasiyana (isoforms) kumasiyana kuyambira 3000 mpaka 3700 kDa. Titin ya minofu ya m'modzi (lat. Soleus) yaumunthu imakhala ndi 38,138 amino acid.

Amphotericity

Mapuloteni ali ndi mphamvu ya amphotericity, ndiko kuti, kutengera ndi momwe zinthu zilili, amawonetsera acid komanso zofunikira. M'mapuloteni, pali mitundu ingapo yamagulu omwe ali ndi ma ionization munjira yothandiza madzi: zotsalira za carboxylic acid zam'mbali mwa asidi amino acid (Aspartic ndi glutamic acids) ndi magulu okhala ndi nayitrogeni am'mbali mwa ma amino acid (makamaka gulu la isel-amino lysine ndi amidine otsalira CNH (NH₂) arginine, pang'ono pang'ono - imidazole histidine zotsalira). Puloteni iliyonse imadziwika ndi ma isoelectric point (pI) - medium acidity (pH), komwe ndalama zamagetsi zonsezo zimakhala ndi zero ndipo, motero, sizimayenda mumagetsi (mwachitsanzo, ndi electrophoresis). Pamalo a isoelectric, hydration ndi solubility ya mapuloteni ndizochepa. Mtengo wa pI umatengera kuchuluka kwa mabacteric acid ndi amino acid ochepa omwe amapezeka mu protein: ma protein omwe ali ndi asidi amino acid otsalira, mfundo za isoelectric zimagona acidic (mapuloteni oterewa amatchedwa acidic), ndipo m'mapuloteni okhala ndi zotsalira zambiri, ali m'dera la alkaline (mapuloteni oyambira ) Mtengo wa pI wa mapuloteni awa ungathenso kutengera mphamvu ya ionic ndi mtundu wa yankho momwe amapezekera, chifukwa mchere wosagwirizana nawo umakhudza kuchuluka kwa ionization wamagulu a mapuloteni. The pI ya mapuloteni imatha kutsimikizika, mwachitsanzo, kuchokera pazokhota zopindika kapena poyang'ana mozama.

Mwambiri, pI ya mapuloteni imatengera momwe amagwirira ntchito: maeleelectric ambiri mapuloteni ambiri a vertebrate tisungu amachokera ku 5.5 mpaka 7.0, koma mwazinthu zina zimakhala zofunikira kwambiri: mwachitsanzo pepsin, puloteni ya puloteni ya gastric yamphamvu kwambiri. msuzi pI

1, ndi nsomba - protamine mapuloteni a mkaka wa nsomba, mawonekedwe ake omwe ndi arginine wambiri - pI

12. Mapuloteni omwe amamangiriza ma nucleic acids chifukwa cha kukhudzana kwa ma electrostatic ndi magulu a phosphate nthawi zambiri amakhala mapuloteni akuluakulu. Chitsanzo cha mapuloteni oterewa ndi ma histones ndi ma protein.

Mapuloteni ndi chiyani?

Mapuloteni amakhala ndi micros yambiri yovuta kuphatikiza yachilengedwe yopanga zotsalira za amino acid, yophatikizidwa mwanjira yapadera. Puloteni iliyonse imakhala ndi mtundu wake wa amino acid, malo ake mlengalenga. Ndikofunika kumvetsetsa kuti mapuloteni omwe amalowa mthupi sagwidwa ndi iwo mwanjira yosasinthika, amawonongeka ndi amino acid ndipo mothandizidwa ndi thupi amapanga mapuloteni ake.

22 amino acid amatenga nawo mbali pakupanga mapuloteni, 13 mwa iwo amatha kusinthidwa kukhala amodzi, 9 - phenylalanine, tryptophan, lysine, histidine, threonine, leucine, valine, isoleucine, methionine - sangakhale m'malo. Kuperewera kwa asidi osasinthika m'thupi ndikosavomerezeka, izi zimayambitsa kusokonezeka kwa thupi.

Ndizofunikira osati kungodziwa kuti mapuloteni amalowa mthupi, komanso zomwe amino acid amapezeka!

Kodi mapuloteni ndi chiyani?

Mapuloteni (mapuloteni / ma polypeptides) - zinthu zachilengedwe, ma polima achilengedwe okhala ndi ma amino acid okwana makumi awiri. Kuphatikiza kumapereka mitundu yambiri. Thupi limagwirizana ndi kapangidwe ka mitundu isanu ndi iwiri ya amino acid.

Makumi asanu ndi atatu mwa amino acid omwe amapezeka mu mapuloteni sangapangidwe ndi thupi lokha, amapezeka ndi chakudya. Awa ndi valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, tryptophan, lysine, threonine, phenylalanine, omwe ndi ofunikira pamoyo.

Zomwe zimachitika mapuloteni

Siyanitsani pakati pa nyama ndi masamba (kuchokera). Mitundu iwiri yamagwiritsidwe imafunika.

Chinyama:

Dera loyera lai limakhala losavuta kuyerekeza ndi thupi (90-92%). Mapuloteni azakudya zama mkaka ochulukirapo ali ndi vuto pang'ono (mpaka 90%). Mapuloteni atsopano mkaka wathunthu amatengedwa ngakhale pang'ono (mpaka 80%).
Mtengo wa ng'ombe ndi nsomba pakuphatikiza kwabwino kwa ma amino acid.

Zamasamba:

Soy, canola ndi cottonseed ali ndi muyeso wabwino wa amino acid m'thupi. Zomera, izi zimachepa.

Palibe chogulitsa chomwe chili ndi muyeso wabwino wa amino acid. Zakudya zoyenera zimaphatikizapo mapuloteni amanyama ndi masamba.

Maziko a zakudya "mwa malamulo" ndi mapuloteni amanyama. Muli ma amino acid ofunikira, ndipo umapereka mayamwidwe abwino a mapuloteni az masamba.

Mapuloteni amagwira ntchito mthupi

Pokhala m'maselo a minofu, imagwira ntchito zambiri:

1. Kuteteza. Kugwira ntchito kwa chitetezo chamthupi ndikusaloza kwachilendo kwa zinthu zakunja. Kupanga kwamankhwala kumachitika.
2. Mayendedwe. Kupezeka kwa zinthu zosiyanasiyana, mwachitsanzo, hemoglobin (mpweya wopatsa mpweya).
3. Zoyang'anira. Kukhalabe ndi mahomoni oyang'anira.
4. Kukula. Mitundu yonse ya mayendedwe imapereka actin ndi myosin.
5. Pulasitiki. Mkhalidwe wamtundu wolumikizidwa umayendetsedwa ndi zomwe zili mu collagen.
6. Wachikoka. Ndiwothandiza komanso imathandizira kudutsa kwamitundu yonse.
7. Kuteteza ndi kufalitsa ma gene (ma cell ndi ma RNA).
8. Mphamvu. Kupereka thupi lonse ndi mphamvu.

Ena amapereka kupuma, amachititsa chimbudzi cha chakudya, kukhazikitsa kagayidwe. Puloteni ya photosensitive rhodopsin imayang'anira ntchito zowoneka.

Mitsempha yamagazi imakhala ndi elastin, chifukwa chake amagwira ntchito mokwanira. Puloteni wa fibrinogen amapereka kusakanikirana kwa magazi.

Zizindikiro zakuchepa kwa mapuloteni m'thupi

Kuperewera kwa mapuloteni ndizovuta zomwe zimachitika kawirikawiri chifukwa cha kuperewera kwa zakudya m'thupi komanso moyo wopatsa chidwi wamunthu wamakono. Mwanjira yofatsa imafotokozedwanso kutopa kwanthawi zonse. Ndi kuchuluka kosakwanira, thupi limayambitsa zizindikiro:

1. Kufooka kwathunthu ndi chizungulire. Kuchepetsa mphamvu ndi ntchito, mawonekedwe a minofu kutopa popanda kuchita masewera olimbitsa thupi, kusokonekera kwamphamvu kwamayendedwe, kufooketsa chidwi ndi kukumbukira.
2. Mutu komanso kugona tulo. Zomwe zimayambitsa kusowa tulo komanso nkhawa zimayambitsa kusowa kwa serotonin.
3. Nthawi zambiri amasinthasintha, agogo. Kuperewera kwa ma enzyme ndi mahomoni kumayambitsa kutopa kwa manjenje: kukwiya pazifukwa zilizonse, kukwiya mosaganizira, kudziletsa kwamalingaliro.
4. Khungu loyera, totupa. Ndikusowa kwa mapuloteni okhala ndi chitsulo, kuchepa kwa magazi m'thupi, zomwe zimayamba ndi khungu komanso zimagwira pakhungu.
5. Kutupa kwa malekezero. Pulasitiki yotsika ya plasma imasokoneza mchere wamchere. Mafuta amkati am'madzi amadzaza madzimadzi m'miyendo ndi m'miyendo.
6. Kuchiritsa koyipa kwamabala ndi abrasions. Kukonza maselo sikulephereka chifukwa chosowa "zomangamanga".
7. Kuchepa mphamvu ndikuchepa tsitsi, kusokonekera kwa misomali. Kuwoneka kwa dandruff chifukwa khungu louma, kutuluka ndi kusweka kwa msomali ndi chizindikiro chofala kwambiri cha thupi pakuchepa kwa mapuloteni. Tsitsi ndi misomali zikukula mosalekeza ndipo zimayankha nthawi yomweyo kusowa kwa zinthu zomwe zimalimbikitsa kukula komanso chikhalidwe chabwino.
8. Kuchepetsa thupi kwambiri. Kuwonongeka kwa ma kilogalamu popanda chifukwa chodziwika chifukwa cha kufunika kwa thupi kulipirira kuchepa kwa mapuloteni chifukwa cha minofu yambiri.
9. Kulephera kwa mtima ndi mitsempha yamagazi, mawonekedwe a kupuma movutikira. Mphamvu ya kupuma, kugaya, ndi genitourinary ndiyonso ikuwonongeka. Dyspnea imawoneka yopanda zolimbitsa thupi, kutsokomola popanda chimfine ndi matenda a virus.

Ndi mawonekedwe amtunduwu, muyenera kusintha makonzedwewo ndi mtundu wa chakudya, kuunikiranso mayendedwe ake, ndipo ngati zakula, pitani kuchipatala.

Mapuloteni angati amafunikira kukondoweza

Kuchuluka kwa zakumwa patsiku kumatengera zaka, jenda, mtundu wa ntchito. Zambiri pazomwe zimayendetsedwa mu tebulo (pansipa) ndipo zimapangidwira kulemera kwabwino.
Kuphwanya mapuloteni ambiri kangapo ndikusankha. Aliyense amadzisankhira fomu yabwino, chinthu chachikulu ndikusunga kuchuluka kwa tsiku ndi tsiku.

zolimbitsa thupiNthawi ya zaka Zakudya zomanga thupi patsiku, g Kwa amunaKwa akazi ZonseZoyambira nyamaZonseZoyambira nyama Palibe katundu18-4096588249 40-6089537545 Digiri yaying'ono18-4099548446 40-6092507745 Giredi yapakatikati18-40102588647 40-6093517944 Mulingo wapamwamba18-40108549246 40-60100508543 Nthawi18-4080487143 40-6075456841 M'badwo wopuma pantchito75456841

Mapuloteni ambiri okhala ndi zakudya

Zakudya zopezeka ndi mapuloteni:

Mwa mitundu yonse ya nyama, malo oyamba pambuyo pa nkhuku azikhala ng'ombe: 18.9 g. Pambuyo pake, nkhumba: 16.4 g, mwanawankhosa: 16.2 g.

Nyanja ndi squid ndiwo atsogoleri: 18.0 g.
Msodzi wolemera kwambiri wa mapuloteni ndi nsomba: 21.8 g, kenako nsomba za pinki: 21 g, zander: 19 g, mackerel: 18 g, herring: 17.6 g ndi cod: 17.5 g.

Pakati pazogulitsa mkaka, kefir ndi wowawasa wowawasa amagwira mwamphamvu: 3.0 g, kenako mkaka: 2.8 g.
Mphesa Zapamwamba - Hercules: 13.1 g, mapira: 11.5 g, semolina: 11.3 g

Kudziwa momwe muliri komanso kuganizira za mwayi wokhala ndi ndalama, mutha kupanga mndandanda molondola ndikuwonetsetsa kuti uwonjezera mafuta ndi chakudya.

Chiwerengero cha mapuloteni mu zakudya

Gawo la mapuloteni, mafuta, chakudya chamagulu muzakudya zabwino liyenera kukhala (m'magalamu) 1: 1: 4. Chinsinsi cha mulingo wa chakudya chopatsa thanzi chitha kuyimilidwa mwanjira ina: mapuloteni 25-35%, mafuta 25-35%, chakudya 30-50%.

Nthawi yomweyo, mafuta azikhala othandiza: mafuta a azitona kapena opaka, mtedza, nsomba, tchizi.

Zakudya zomanga thupi zomwe zili mu mbale ndi zokutira zolimba, masamba aliwonse atsopano, komanso zipatso / zipatso zouma, zinthu mkaka wowawasa.

Mapuloteni m'magawo akhoza kukhala osakanikirana: nyama zamasamba +.

Amino Acids Okhala M'mapuloteni

Zomwe zimasinthidwa zimatha kupangidwa ndi thupi lokha, koma kupatsika kunja kunalibe kopambana. Makamaka ndi moyo wokangalika komanso kuchita masewera olimbitsa thupi.

Zonse popanda kupatula ndizofunikira, zotchuka kwambiri:

Alanine.
Zimapangitsa kagayidwe kazakudya, zimathandiza kuthetsa poizoni. Udindo wa "ukhondo". Zapamwamba kwambiri mu nyama, nsomba, mkaka.

Arginine.
Ndikofunikira kukhazikitsa minofu, khungu labwino, cartilage ndi mafupa. Amapereka kuyaka mafuta ndi chitetezo cha m'thupi. Muli nyama iliyonse, mkaka, mtedza uliwonse, gelatin.

Aspartic acid.
Amapereka mphamvu moyenera. Imawongolera magwiridwe antchito amkati wamanjenje. Bwezeretsani mphamvu zamafuta ndi nyama nkhuku, mkaka, nzimbe. Muli mbatata, mtedza, mbewu monga chimanga.

Mbiri.
"Wopanga" wamkulu wamthupi amasinthidwa kukhala histamine ndi hemoglobin. Kuchiritsa mabala msanga, ndi komwe kumayambitsa ziwonetsero. Makamaka mkaka, chimanga ndi nyama iliyonse.

Serene.
Neurotransmitter, yofunika kwambiri pakugwira bwino ntchito kwa ubongo ndi ubongo wamkati. Pali nandolo, nyama, chimanga, soya.

Ndi chakudya choyenera komanso njira yoyenera ya moyo, ma amino acid onse adzawoneka m'thupi chifukwa cha "cubes" ndikuwonetsa zaumoyo, kukongola komanso moyo wautali.

Zomwe zimayambitsa kusowa kwa mapuloteni mthupi

1. Matenda opatsirana pafupipafupi, kufooketsa chitetezo cha m'thupi.
2. Kupsinjika ndi nkhawa.
3. Ukalamba ndikuchepetsa njira zonse za metabolic.
4. Zotsatira zoyipa zogwiritsa ntchito mankhwalawa.
5. Kulephera pamimba.
6. Kuvulala.
7. Zakudya zozikidwa pa chakudya chofulumira, zinthu zomwe zimapezeka pompopompo, zinthu zomalizidwa zotsika mtengo.

Kuperewera kwa amino acid imodzi kumalepheretsa kupanga mapuloteni ena. Thupi limakhazikitsidwa pamaziko a "kudzaza ma voids", kotero ma amino acid omwe amasowa amachokera ku mapuloteni ena. "Kumanganso" kumeneku kumasokoneza kugwira ntchito kwa ziwalo, minofu, mtima, ubongo ndipo pambuyo pake kumakwiyitsa matendawa.

Kuperewera kwa mapuloteni mu ana kumalepheretsa kukula, kumayambitsa kulumala kwakuthupi ndi kwamaganizidwe.
Kukula kwa kuchepa kwa magazi m'thupi, mawonekedwe a matenda apakhungu, matenda am'mafupa ndi minofu sikuti mndandanda wathunthu wa matenda. Pulogalamu yayikulu yamapuloteni imatha kuyambitsa misala komanso kwashiorkor (mtundu wa dystrophy yayikulu chifukwa cha kusowa kwa mapuloteni).

Puloteni ikamavulaza thupi

• kulandira kwambiri
• matenda aakulu a chiwindi, impso, mtima ndi mitsempha yamagazi.

Kuchita mopitirira muyeso sizimachitika kawirikawiri chifukwa cholowetsa zinthu mosakwanira m'thupi.Zimachitika mwa iwo omwe akufuna kuwonjezera minofu posachedwa popanda kutsatira malingaliro a ophunzitsa ndi akatswiri azaumoyo.

Mavuto a phwando "ochulukirapo" akuphatikizapo:

Kulephera kwina. Kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni ochuluka kwambiri, kusokoneza ntchito yawo yachilengedwe. "Fyuluta" sangathe kuthana ndi katundu, matenda a impso amawonekera.

Matenda a chiwindi. Mapuloteni ochulukirapo amadzaza ammonia m'magazi, omwe amachepetsa chiwindi.

Kukula kwa atherosulinosis. Zinthu zambiri zanyama, kuphatikiza pazinthu zofunikira, zimakhala ndi mafuta owopsa ndi cholesterol.

Anthu omwe akudwala matenda a chiwindi, impso, mtima ndi zida zam'mimba ayenera kuchepetsa kudya mapuloteni.

Kusamalira thanzi lawo lomwe amalipeza bwino kwa iwo omwe amada nkhawa nako. Kuti mupewe zovuta, muyenera kukumbukira kufunika kwa kuchira kwa thupi. Kupumula kwathunthu, zakudya, kuyendera akatswiri kudzakulitsa unyamata, thanzi ndi moyo.

Solubility

Mapuloteni amasiyanasiyana mumadzi sungunuka. Mapuloteni osungunuka ndi madzi amatchedwa albumin, awa amaphatikizapo mapuloteni amwazi ndi mkaka. Kupanga insoluble, kapena scleroprotein, kuphatikizapo, keratin (mapuloteni omwe amapanga tsitsi, tsitsi la zinyama, nthenga za mbalame, ndi zina) ndi fibroin, yomwe ndi gawo la silika ndi ma cobwebs. The solubility ya mapuloteni imatsimikiziridwa osati ndi kapangidwe kake, koma ndi zinthu zakunja, monga mawonekedwe a zosungunulira, mphamvu za ionic, ndi pH yankho.

Mapuloteni amagawidwanso kukhala hydrophilic (madzi sungunuka) ndi hydrophobic (obwezera madzi). Mapuloteni ambiri a cytoplasm, nyukiliya, ndi chinthu chophatikizira, kuphatikizapo insoluble keratin ndi fibroin, ndi hydrophilic. Mapuloteni ambiri omwe amapanga tizinthu tachilengedwe ndi ma hydrophobic - mapuloteni otulutsa zimimba omwe amagwirizana ndi ma hydrophobic lipids a membrane (mapuloteni awa, monga lamulo, amakhalanso ndi malo a hydrophilic).

Mapuloteni a biosynthesis m'thupi

Mapuloteni a biosynthesis - mapangidwe m'thupi la mapuloteni ofunikira ochokera ku ma amino acid mwakuwaphatikiza ndi mtundu wapadera wamtundu wamafuta - polypeptide unyolo. DNA imasunga zambiri zama protein. Kuphatikizika komwe kumachitika mwa gawo lina la khungu lotchedwa ribosome. RNA imasamutsa zambiri kuchokera ku gene lomwe mukufuna (tsamba la DNA) kupita ku nthiti.

Popeza mapuloteni a biosynthesis ndi ochulukitsa, ovuta, amagwiritsa ntchito chidziwitso chomwe chimayikidwa pamaziko a kukhalapo kwa munthu - DNA, kapangidwe kake kazinthu kazovuta ndi ntchito yovuta. Asayansi aphunzira momwe angapezere zoletsa zama michere ena ndi mahomoni, koma ntchito yofunika kwambiri yasayansi ndikupeza mapuloteni pogwiritsa ntchito majini.

Mayendedwe

Ntchito yoyendetsa mapuloteni apadera a magazi - hemoglobin. Chifukwa cha mapuloteni awa, mpweya umatulutsidwa m'mapapu kupita ku ziwalo ndi minyewa yathupi.

Amakhala mu ntchito ya mapuloteni a chitetezo chamthupi otchedwa ma antibodies. Ndi ma antibodies omwe amateteza thanzi lathupi, kuwateteza ku mabakiteriya, mavairasi, ziphe, ndipo amalola magazi kuti apange magazi m'malo mwa bala lotseguka.

Ntchito ya siginecha ndikufalitsa mauthenga (chidziwitso) pakati pa maselo.

Mapuloteni a Mkulu Wathunthu

Kufunika kwa thupi la munthu mapuloteni mwachindunji kumatengera zolimbitsa thupi. Tikamayenda kwambiri, mphamvu zambiri zam'magazi zimachitika mthupi lathu. Anthu omwe amachita masewera olimbitsa thupi nthawi zonse amafunikira mapuloteni owirikiza kawiri kuposa munthu wamba. Kuperewera kwa mapuloteni kwa anthu omwe amachita nawo masewera ndi owopsa "kuyimitsa" minofu ndi kutopa kwa thupi lonse!

Pafupifupi, kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni kwa munthu wamkulu kumawerengedwa pamaziko a kuphatikizika kwa 1 ga mapuloteni pa 1 kg yolemera, ndiye pafupifupi 80-100 g kwa amuna, 55-60 g kwa akazi. Ochita masewera aamuna amalangizidwa kuti awonjezere kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni omwe amadya mpaka 170-200 g patsiku.

Zakudya zomanga thupi zopatsa thupi

Zakudya zoyenera zokwaniritsa thupi ndi mapuloteni ndizophatikiza mapuloteni amanyama ndi chomera. Kuchuluka kwa kutsimikizika kwa mapuloteni kuchokera ku chakudya kumadalira komwe adachokera komanso njira yothandizira kutentha.

Chifukwa chake, pafupifupi 80% yazakudya zomanga thupi ndi 60% zomanga thupi zomwe zimamwa thupi. Zogulitsa nyama zomwe zimakhala ndi nyama zimakhala ndi mapuloteni ambiri pazinthu zonse kuposa masamba. Kuphatikiza apo, mapangidwe azinthu "nyama" amaphatikiza ma amino acid onse, ndipo zinthu zam'munda pankhaniyi zimawonedwa ngati zonyozeka.

Malamulo oyenera azakudya zopatsa thanzi kuyamwa

• Njira yofatsa yophikira - kuphika, kuwotcha, kutumiza. Frying iyenera kuyesedwa.
• Ndikulimbikitsidwa kudya nsomba zambiri ndi nkhuku. Ngati mukufuna nyama - sankhani ng'ombe.
• Broths sayenera kupatulidwa muzakudya, ndizambiri zamafuta komanso zovulaza. Mwazowopsa, mutha kuphika chakudya choyamba pogwiritsa ntchito "msuzi wachiwiri".

Zomwe zimapezeka m'mapulogalamu azakudya zomanga thupi

Ochita masewera omwe akutenga minofu yolimba ayenera kutsatira malangizo onse omwe atchulidwa pamwambapa. Zakudya zawo zambiri zimayenera kukhala mapuloteni ochokera ku nyama. Amayenera kudyedwa molumikizana ndi zakudya zamapuloteni a masamba, zomwe soya ndizomwe amakonda.

Ndikofunikanso kukaonana ndi dokotala ndikuwona momwe mungagwiritsire ntchito zakumwa zapuloteni zapadera, kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni omwe ndi 97-98%. Katswiri aliyense payekha amasankha chakumwa, amawerengera mlingo woyenera. Ichi chikhala chosangalatsa komanso chofunikira cha mapuloteni othandizira kulimbitsa thupi.

Kusintha

Protein denaturation imatanthawuza kusintha kulikonse muzochitika zake zachilengedwe komanso / kapena mawonekedwe a physicochemical omwe amagwirizana ndi kutayika kwa quaternary, tertiary kapena sekondale form (onani gawo "Mapulogalamu a Mapuloteni"). Monga lamulo, mapuloteni amakhala osasunthika pansi pazinthuzi (kutentha, pH, ndi zina) momwe amagwira ntchito mthupi. Kusintha kwakuthwa mwa izi kumabweretsa kupendekera kwa protein. Kutengera mtundu wa denaturing wothandizila, makina (oyambitsa kapena osinthika), mwakuthupi (kutentha, kuziziritsa, irradiation, sonication) ndi mankhwala (ma acid ndi alkali, surfactants, urea) denaturation amadziwika.

Protein denaturation ikhoza kukhala yathunthu kapena yochepa, yosinthika kapena yosasinthika. Mlandu wodziwika bwino wa kusasinthika kwa mapuloteni m'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku ndi kuphika dzira la nkhuku, pamene, chifukwa cha kutentha kwambiri, madzi osungunuka osungunuka am'madzi amayamba kukhala wandiweyani, wopanda phokoso komanso opaque. Kusintha kwina nthawi zina kumatha kusintha, monga momwe zimakhalira ndi mapuloteni osungunuka ndi madzi pogwiritsa ntchito mchere wa ammonium (njira yowumitsira mchere), ndipo njirayi imagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati njira yoyeretsera.

Ma mamolekyulu a mapuloteni ndi ma polima okhala ndi zigawo zomwe zimakhala ndi zotsalira za α-L-amino acid (omwe ali ma monomers), komanso zosinthidwa zotsalira za amino acid ndi zina zomwe sizili amino acid zimatha kuphatikizidwa pakuphatikizidwa kwa mapuloteni. M'mabuku a sayansi, kufupikitsidwa kwa zilembo ziwiri kapena zitatu amagwiritsidwa ntchito potanthauza amino acid. Ngakhale poyang'ana koyamba zitha kuwoneka kuti kugwiritsa ntchito mitundu "ya" mitundu 20 ya ma amino acid m'mapuloteni ambiri kumachepetsa mitundu yama protein, kwenikweni, kuchuluka kwa zosankha sikungakhale kopambanitsa: pazinthu zisanu zotsalira za amino acid, kale ndizopitilira 3 miliyoni, ndipo zigawo 100 za amino acid ndizotsalira. (mapuloteni ang'onoang'ono) akhoza kuyimiridwa muz mitundu yopitilira 10,130. Mapuloteni ochokera 2 mpaka makumi angapo amitundu yotsalira ya amino acid nthawi zambiri amatchedwa zigamba, wokhala ndi ma polima ambiri - agologolo, ngakhale gawoli limatsutsana kwambiri.

Puloteni ukapangidwa chifukwa chothandizana ndi gulu la α-carboxyl (-COOH) la amino acid limodzi ndi gulu la α-amino (-NH₂) wa amino acid, zomangira za peptide zimapangidwa. Mapeto a puloteni amatchedwa N- ndi C-terminus, kutengera magulu amitundu yotsalira a amino acid omwe ndi omasuka: -NH₂ kapena -COOH, motsatana. Mu kapangidwe ka mapuloteni pa ribosome, wotsalira (N-terminal) wa amino acid nthawi zambiri amakhala wotsalira wa methionine, ndipo zotsalira zotsalazo zimaphatikizidwa ndi C-terminus yam'mbuyomu.

Zambiri za mapuloteni zakudya, zakudya

Omwe akufuna kuchepa thupi ayenera kudya nyama komanso mapuloteni azinyama. Ndikofunikira kupatula zakudya zawo, chifukwa nthawi yakukwanira kwawo ndi yosiyana. Zopangira nyama zamafuta ziyenera kutayidwa, mbatata siziyenera kumenyedwa, chimanga chokhala ndi mapuloteni apakati amayenera kukondedwa.

Osamapita mopambanitsa ndipo "khalani pansi" pazakudya zama protein. Sichiyenerera aliyense, chifukwa kupatula kwathunthu kwa zakudya zamagetsi kumabweretsa kuchepa kwa mphamvu yogwira ntchito ndi mphamvu. Ndikokwanira kudya zakudya zokhala ndi chakudya m'mawa - izi zimapatsa mphamvu masana, masana, kudya zakudya zama protein zochepa. Kupanga kusowa kwa mphamvu madzulo, thupi liyamba kutentha mafuta amthupi, komabe, njirayi imakhala yotetezeka ku thanzi la thupi.

Onetsetsani kuti muphatikiza zakudya zabwino komanso zomanga thupi m'makina anu. Kwa thupi, mapuloteni ndiye chinthu chachikulu chomangira! Kuphatikiza pa kuphunzitsidwa pafupipafupi, zikuthandizani kuti mupange masewera okongola othamanga!

Mapuloteni ndi mankhwala ofunikira kwambiri, popanda zomwe ntchito zofunika kwambiri za thupi sizingatheke. Mapuloteni amakhala ndi ma enzymes, maselo a ziwalo, zimakhala. Amayang'anira metabolic, mayendedwe ndi njira zina zambiri zomwe zikuchitika mthupi la munthu. Mapuloteni sangathe kudziunjikira “pokhapokha”, chifukwa chake ayenera kumwedwa nthawi zonse. Ndizofunikira kwambiri kwa anthu omwe amachita nawo masewera, chifukwa mapuloteni amawongolera.

Magawo a Gulu

K. Lindstrom-Lang adaganizira kusiyanitsa magawo anayi a dongosolo la mapuloteni: pulayimale, sekondale, tertiary ndi quaternary. Ngakhale gawoli linatha kale, likugwiritsidwabe ntchito. Kapangidwe kake (kagawo ka amino acid zotsalira) ka polypeptide kamakhudzidwa ndi kapangidwe ka jini ndi mtundu wama genetic, ndipo magawo a malangizo apamwamba amapangidwa panthawi yopanga mapuloteni. Ngakhale mapangidwe a puloteni yonse pang'onopang'ono amatsimikizika ndi mtundu wake wa amino acid, ndiwowonjezera ndipo ungadalire nyengo zina, ndiye chifukwa chake ndikulankhula bwino za mapuloteni omwe amakonda kapena ofunikira kwambiri.

Kapangidwe koyamba

Kapangidwe kake kofanana ndi zotsalira za amino acid zotsalira mu unyolo wa polypeptide. Pulogalamu yayikulu ya mapuloteni nthawi zambiri imafotokozedwa pogwiritsa ntchito zilembo ziwiri kapena zitatu za zotsalira za amino acid.

Zofunikira pazapangidwe koyambirira ndizogwirizira kosasintha - maphatikizidwe okhazikika amatsalira amino acid omwe amagwira ntchito inayake ndipo amapezeka m'mapuloteni ambiri. Mawonekedwe osunthira amasungidwa pakukula kwa mitundu ya nyama; nthawi zambiri zimakhala zotheka kuneneratu ntchito za mapuloteni osadziwika kuchokera kwa iwo. Mlingo wa Homology (kufanana) kwa ma amino acid ofanana ndi mapuloteni amitundu yosiyanasiyana angagwiritsidwe ntchito kuyerekeza kutalika kwa kutalika pakati pa taxa komwe zinthu izi zimachokera.

Pulogalamu yayikulu ya mapuloteni imatha kutsimikizika mwa njira zotsatirira mapuloteni kapena poyambira mapangidwe ake a mRNA pogwiritsa ntchito gome code.

Kapangidwe kachiwiri

Kapangidwe kenakake ndikuwongolera kwa chidutswa cha polypeptide chingwe chokhazikitsidwa ndi zomangira za hydrogen.Mitundu iyi ndi yodziwika bwino yamapangidwe apamwamba a protein:

• Ma-α-helices ndi maukali akukhazikika kuzungulira molowera kwa molekyulu. Kutembenukira kumodzi ndi zotsalira za 3.6 amino acid, phula la helix ndi 0,54 nm (0.15 nm imagwera pamtsalira umodzi wa amino acid). Kuzungulira kumakhazikika ndi zomangira za haidrojeni pakati pa magulu a H ndi O peptide, okhala mbali zinayi motalikirana. Ngakhale α-helix imatha kukhala yamanzere kapena yamanzere, oyika kumanja kumapuloteni. Mzere umasokonezedwa ndi kukhudzana kwa ma electrostatic a glutamic acid, lysine, arginine. Pafupifupi, ma avalogine, serine, threonine ndi zotsalira za leucine zimatha kusokoneza mapangidwe a helix, zotsalira za proline zimayambitsa unyolo komanso zimasokoneza ma α-helices,
• Ma β-ma sheet (zigawo zokutidwa) ndi ma ma polypeptide angapo a zigzag momwe ma cell a hydrogen amapangika pakati pa amino acid (0,34 nm pa amino acid yotsalira) pamapangidwe oyambira kapena maukonde osiyanasiyana a protein (mmalo motalikirana kwambiri, monga momwe ziliri khalani mu α-helix). Maunyolo nthawi zambiri amawongoleredwa ndi N-malekezero mbali zakusiyana (mawonekedwe a antiparallel) kapena mbali imodzi (parallel β-form) Ndizothekanso kupezeka kwa mawonekedwe osakanikirana opanga ma parallel ndi antiparallel β. Popanga ma β-ma sheet, masikono yaying'ono yamagulu amino acid ndi ofunikira, nthawi zambiri glycine ndi alanine predominate,
• π-helix
• 3₁₀mizere
• zidutswa zosasankhidwa.

Mapangidwe apamwamba

Kapangidwe kake ka thambo ndi kapangidwe kazinthu ka ma polypeptide. Mwapangidwe, imakhala ndi zinthu zaumbidwe lachiwiri zomwe zimakhazikika ndi mitundu mitundu yosiyanasiyana momwe zochitika za hydrophobic zimathandizira. Kukhazikika kwa kapangidwe kake ndi:

• maubwenzi ophatikizika (pakati pa zotsalira ziwiri za cysteine ​​- disparide bridges),
• zomangira pakati pa magulu otsutsana ndi otsalira a amino acid,
• zomangira za haidrojeni
• ma hydrophobic mogwirizana. Mukakambirana ndi ma molekyulu am'madzi ozungulira, molekyu ya puloteni imakulungidwa kuti magulu osagwirizana ndi ma amino acid asiyanitsidwe ndi yankho lamadzi, ndipo magulu a polar hydrophilic mbali amawonekera padziko molekyu.

Kafukufuku wazomwe amapanga mapuloteni awonetsa kuti ndizoyenera kusiyanitsa gawo lina pakati pa gawo lachiwiri ndi kapangidwe ka atomiki - the folding motif (kapangidwe kake, kapangidwe kake). Chojambulira chimatsimikizika ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa magawo awiri a kapangidwe kake (α-helices and β-strands) mkati mwa protein protein - pulaneti yaying'ono yomwe ikhoza kukhalapo yokha kapena kukhala gawo la mapuloteni okulirapo limodzi ndi madera ena. Mwachitsanzo, taganizirani chimodzi mwazinthu zomwe zimapangitsa mapuloteni. Mapuloteni apadziko lonse lapansi omwe akuwonetsedwa m'chifanizochi, kumanja, ali ndi chithunzi chokutira chotchedwa α / β-silinda: 8 parallel β-strands amapanga β-silinda mkati mwa silinda ina yopangidwa ndi 8 α-helices. Motif imeneyi imapezeka pafupifupi 10% ya mapuloteni.

Zimadziwika kuti makongoletsedwe amaonekedwe ake ndi osasinthika ndipo amapezeka m'mapuloteni omwe alibe magwiridwe antchito kapena chisinthiko. Kuzindikiritsa kufota kwamabampu kumayambitsa kupangika kwamapuloteni (monga CATH kapena SCOP).

Kuti mudziwe momwe puloteni imapangidwira, njira za x-ray zosiyanitsira, maginito amtundu wa nyukiliya, ndi mitundu yama microscopy amagwiritsidwa ntchito.

Kapangidwe ka Quaternary

Kapangidwe ka quaternary (kapena subunit, domain) ndikapangidwe kofanana ka ma ma polypeptide angapo m'makompyuta amodzi.Ma molekyulu a protein omwe amapanga mapuloteni okhala ndi quaternary dongosolo amapangika payokha pa nthiti ndipo pokhapokha pamapeto pazomwe amapanga amapanga mawonekedwe apamwamba kwambiri. Mapuloteni apangidwe a quaternary amatha kuphatikizira maunyolo ofanana komanso osiyana a polypeptide. Kukhazikika kwa kapangidwe ka Quaternary kumakhudzanso mitundu yomweyo ya zochitika monga kukhazikika kwa Tertiary. Ma protein a supramolecular protein akhoza kukhala ma mamolekyulu ambiri.

Gulu la nyumba

Mapuloteni amatha kugawidwa m'magulu atatu malinga ndi mtundu wa kapangidwe kake:

1. Mapuloteni a Fibrillar - ma polima a form, mawonekedwe awo nthawi zambiri amakhala olimbitsa thupi nthawi zambiri ndipo amathandizidwa makamaka ndi mgwirizano pakati pa maunyolo osiyanasiyana. Amapanga microfilaments, microtubules, fibrils, ndipo amathandizira kapangidwe ka maselo ndi minofu. Mapuloteni a Fibrillar amaphatikiza keratin ndi collagen.
2. Mapuloteni apadziko lonse samasungunuka ndi madzi, mawonekedwe a mamolekyu amakhala ochulukirapo kapena ochepa.
3. Mapuloteni a Membrane - amakhala ndi zigawo zikuluzikulu zomwe zimapanga cell cell, koma mbali zake zimatuluka kuchokera kuzinthu zomwe zimalowa mu cell ndi cell ya cytoplasm. Mapuloteni a Membrane amagwira ntchito ngati ma receptor, ndiye kuti, amatumiza ma sign, komanso amapereka transmembrane mayendedwe azinthu zosiyanasiyana. Ma prootein onyamula ali achindunji, chilichonse chimadutsa mu nembanemba mamolekyu ena kapena mtundu winawake wa siginecha.

Mapuloteni osavuta komanso ovuta

Kuphatikiza pa unyolo wa peptide, mapuloteni ambiri amaphatikizanso magulu omwe si amino acid, ndipo mwa izi mapuloteni ovomerezeka amagawika m'magulu awiri akuluakulu - mapuloteni osavuta komanso ovuta (mapuloteni). Mapuloteni osavuta amakhala ndi ma cell a polypeptide okha, mapuloteni ovuta amapezekanso m'magulu omwe si amino acid, kapena ma prosthetic. Kutengera ndi mitundu yamagulu azisamba, magulu otsatirawa amasiyanitsidwa ndi mapuloteni ovuta:

Ma glycoproteins okhala ndi zotsalira zogwirizana ndi chakudya monga gulu lopangira, ma glycoproteins okhala ndi zotsalira za mucopolysaccharide ndi zina mwa zotsalazo za proteinoglycans. Magulu a Hydroxyl a serine kapena threonine nthawi zambiri amatenga nawo mbali popanga mgwirizano wokhala ndi zotsalira za chakudya. Mapuloteni ambiri akunja, makamaka ma immunoglobulins, ndi glycoprotein. Mu proteinoglycans, gawo lamafuta

95% ya kuchuluka kwa molekyulu yonse, ndiye gawo lalikulu la masanjidwewo,

2. Kufunika kwachilengedwe pakubadwa kwa zinthu zachilengedwe. Njira zakulera.

1. Kuberekanso komanso kufunika kwake.

Kubalana - Kuberekanso zinthu zofanana, zomwe zimapereka

kupezeka kwa mitundu kwa millennia yambiri kumathandizira kuwonjezeka

kuchuluka kwa mitundu ya zolengedwa, kupitiliza kwa moyo. Zakale, zogonana komanso

kufalikira kwa zomera zachilengedwe.

2. Kubala kwakale ndi njira yakale kwambiri. Mu

chiwalo chimodzi chimachita zachiwerewere, pomwe nthawi zambiri chimachita chiwerewere

anthu awiri. Zomera, kubereka kokhazikika pogwiritsa ntchito spores - imodzi

maselo apadera. Kufalikira kwa spores za algae, moss, mahatchi,

zolanda, ferns. Kuthamanga kwa spores ochokera kumera, kumera kwawo ndi kukula kwa

zolengedwa zatsopanozi zabwino m'malo abwino. Imfa ya ambiri

mkangano ukugwera pamavuto. Kuchepa kochepa kwambiri kopezeka

zatsopano kuchokera ku spores chifukwa zimakhala ndizochepa michere ndipo

mmera umawamwa makamaka chilengedwe.

3. Kufalitsa kwamasamba - kufalitsa mbewu ndi

kugwiritsa ntchito ziwalo zam'mera: mphukira za mlengalenga kapena mobisa, mbali za muzu,

tsamba, tuber, mababu. Kutenga nawo gawo pa kufalikira kwa chamoyo chimodzi

kapena mbali zake. Kuyandikana kwa mwana wamkazi wamkazi ndi mayi ake, monga momwe

limapitiliza kukula kwa thupi la amayi. Kuchita bwino kwambiri komanso

kufalikira kwa zomeretsa zachilengedwe mwachilengedwe, ngati chothandizira pazinthu zina

amapangika mwachangu kuchokera mbali ya amayi kusiyana ndi spore. Zitsanzo Zamasamba

kuswana: kugwiritsa ntchito ma rhizomes - kakombo wa kuchigwa, timbewu, tirigu, ndi zina

nthambi zosachepera kukhudza dothi (layering) - currants, mphesa zamtchire, masharubu

- sitiroberi, mababu - tulip, daffodil, crocus. Kugwiritsa ntchito zamasamba

kuswana mukamakula mbewu zobzalidwa: mbatata zimafalitsidwa ndi tubers,

mababu - anyezi ndi adyo, magawo - currants ndi gooseberries, muzu

ana - chitumbuwa, maula, kudula - mitengo yazipatso.

4. Kubala. Chinsinsi cha kubereka

pakupanga maselo a germ (ma gametes), kapangidwe ka khungu la amuna

(umuna) ndi chachikazi (dzira) - umuna ndi kukula kwatsopano

mwana wamkazi chamoyo chaza. Chifukwa cha umuna

chamoyo chothandizidwa ndi ma chromosomes osiyanasiyana, zomwe zikutanthauza ndi zinanso

Mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya cholowa, zomwe zimachitika chifukwa cha izi

kuzolowera malo okhala. Kukhalapo kwa kubereka mu

algae, mosses, ferns, masewera olimbitsa thupi ndi angiosperms. Zovuta

mchitidwe wogonana womwe umapezeka munzomera pakubala kwawo, mawonekedwe a zovuta kwambiri

Mitundu yazomera mbewu.

5. Kubzala mbewu kumachitika mothandizidwa ndi mbewu,

ndi mawonekedwe a masewera olimbitsa thupi ndi angiosperms (angiosperms

kuphatikiza zachilengedwe ndizofala). Kusintha kwa masitepe

kufalitsa mbewu: kupukusa - kusintha kwa mungu kumayambitsa kusokonekera kwa pistil, ake

kumera, kutuluka pogawa sperm awiri, zomwe akupita patsogolo

ovule, kenako kuphatikizika kwa umuna umodzi ndi dzira, ndi wina ndi

sekondi yachiwiri (mu angiosperms). Mapangidwe a mbewu ya ovule -

mluza wokhala ndi chakudya, komanso kuchokera kumakoma am'mimba - mwana wosabadwayo. Mbewu -

nyongolosi ya mbewu yatsopano, yabwino, imaphuka ndipo nthawi yoyamba

mmera umadyetsedwa ndi michere ya mbewuyo, kenako mizu yake

amayamba kuyamwa madzi ndi mchere kuchokera m'nthaka, ndipo masamba - mpweya woipa

mpweya kuchokera mumlengalenga. Moyo wodziyimira pawokha chomera chatsopano.

Mapuloteni a biophysics

Mapulogalamu enieni a puloteni mu cell, pogwiritsira ntchito nembanemba yamadzi ndi kunenepa kwa macromolecules (eng.) zovuta kwambiri. Hypothesis ya mapuloteni ngati "system yokhala ngati galasi" - "yowonjezera pakompyuta" - imathandizidwa ndi kusanthula kwa X-ray (mpaka lingaliro la 1 angstrom), kuchuluka kwambiri, kugwirizanitsa kwa ntchito yotsogola komanso mfundo zina.

Pokomera lingaliro lina, kuchuluka kwamapuloteni ngati ma processor a kuyenda kwa ma intraglobular (mtundu wa kudumphadumpha kapena kupatsirana kosalekeza) kumatsimikiziridwa ndi kuyesa pa kubalalitsa kwa neutron, Mössbauer spectroscopy.

Njira Universal: ribosomal synthesis

Mapuloteni amapangidwa ndi zinthu zamoyo kuchokera ku amino acid potengera chidziwitso chomwe chili mu majini. Puloteni iliyonse imakhala ndi zotsalira zamitundu zotsalira za amino acid, zomwe zimatsimikiziridwa ndi kufanana kwa ma protein a genot omwe amaphatikizira mapuloteni. Mtundu wa genetic ndi njira yotanthauzira ma sequotide a DNA (kudzera RNA) mu gulu la amino acid pamtambo wa polypeptide. Ndondomeko iyi imatsimikizira kulemberana magawo a trinucleotide a RNA, omwe amatchedwa codons, ndi ma amino acid ena omwe amaphatikizidwa ndi mapuloteni: kutsatira kwa AUG nucleotide, mwachitsanzo, ikufanana ndi methionine. Popeza DNA ili ndi mitundu inayi ya ma nucleotide, kuchuluka kwa ma codon ndi 64, ndipo popeza maamino 20 amagwiritsidwa ntchito m'mapuloteni, ma amino acid ambiri amatsimikiziridwa ndi mitundu yopitilira imodzi. Ma codoni atatu ndi osafunikira: amakhala ngati chizindikiridwe choyimitsa kuphatikizika kwa polypeptide unyolo ndipo amatchedwa kuyimitsa macodon, kapena kuyimitsa ma codon.

Mapuloteni obisika a genetic amalembedwa koyamba mu sequotide ya messenger RNA (mRNA) ndi ma RNA polymerase enzymes. Mwambiri, ma protein a zinthu zamoyo amapangidwa ma ribosomes - makina am'maselo opanga ma cell omwe amapezeka mu cytoplasm of cell. Njira yopangira polypeptide unyolo ndi ribosome pa mRNA matrix imatchedwa kumasulira.

Kuphatikiza kwa protein ya Ribosomal kwenikweni kumakhala chimodzimodzi mu prokaryotes ndi eukaryotes, koma amasiyana mwatsatanetsatane. Chifukwa chake, prokaryotic mRNA imatha kuwerengedwa ndi ribosomes mu kuphatikizika kwa mapuloteni a amino asidi atangolemba kapena asanamalize. Ma eukaryotes, cholembedwa choyambirira chimayenera kudutsa zosintha zingapo ndikusunthira mu cytoplasm (kumalo a ribosome), kumasulira kusanayambe. Mlingo wa kaphatikizidwe wa mapuloteni ndiwokwera kwambiri mu prokaryotes ndipo amatha kufikira 20 amino acid pamphindikati.

Ngakhale isanayambike ntchito yomasulira, ma aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes amaika ma amino acid makamaka mumayendedwe awo RNA (tRNA). Dera la tRNA, lotchedwa anticodon, limatha kuphatikizira limodzi ndi mRNA codon, potero kuonetsetsa kuti pakhale zotsalira za amino acid zophatikizika ndi tRNA mu polypeptide unyolo malinga ndi mtundu wa chibadwa.

Pa gawo loyamba la kutanthauzira, kuyambitsa, poyambitsa (kawirikawiri methionine) codon imadziwika ndi gawo laling'ono la ribosome, komwe aminoacylated methionine tRNA amamangiriridwa pogwiritsa ntchito mapuloteni oyambitsa. Pambuyo pozindikira codon yoyambira, gawo lalikulu lalumikizana ndi gawo laling'ono la nthiti, ndipo gawo lachiwiri la kumasulira, elongation, limayamba. Pa gawo lirilonse la nthiti kuchokera kumapeto kwa 5-- mpaka 3'-mRNA, codon imodzi imawerengedwa ndikupanga ma hydrogen mgwirizano pakati pake ndikumayendetsa RNA yowonjezera, yomwe imatsala yolingana ndi amino acid. Mapangidwe a peptide chomangira pakati pa otsalira amino acid otsala a peptide omwe akukula ndi ma amino acid omwe atsalira pa tRNA amathandizidwa ndi ribosomal RNA (rRNA), yomwe imapanga likulu la peptidyl transferase la ribosome. Pakatikati pake ma atomu a nayitrogeni ndi kaboni ali pamalo oyenera kuperekapo kanthu. Gawo lachitatu komanso lomaliza la kutanthauzira, kuimitsa, kumachitika pamene nthiti ikufika pamalopo, pambuyo pake kuchotsa mapuloteni kumapangitsa kulumikizana pakati pa tRNA yomaliza ndi polypeptide, kuimitsa kapangidwe kake. Mu ribosomes, mapuloteni nthawi zonse amapangidwa kuchokera ku N- mpaka C-terminus.

Kaphatikizidwe ka Neribosomal

Mu bowa wotsika komanso mabakiteriya ena, njira yowonjezerapo (yopanda ribosomal, kapena multienzyme) yodziwika bwino ya peptides, yomwe nthawi zambiri imakhala yaying'ono komanso yachilendo, imadziwika.Kuphatikizika kwa ma peptides amenewa, omwe nthawi zambiri amakhala kwachiwiri kwa metabolites, kumachitika ndi protein yambiri yama protein, NRS synthase, popanda gawo la ribosomes. NRS synthase nthawi zambiri imakhala ndi ma protein angapo kapena mapuloteni amodzi omwe amasankha amino acid, amapanga chomangira cha peptide ndikutulutsa peptide yopanga. Pamodzi, magawo awa amapanga gawo. Ma module aliwonse amathandizira kuphatikizidwa kwa amino acid imodzi mu peptide yopanga. Ma NRS synthases amatha kupangidwa ndi ma module amodzi kapena angapo. Nthawi zina, maofesiwa amaphatikizapo domain lomwe lingapangitse isomerizing L-amino acid (mawonekedwe abwinobwino) kukhala F-D.

Chemical synthesis

Mapuloteni amafupia amatha kupanga michere pogwiritsa ntchito mitundu ya organic synthesis, mwachitsanzo, mafuta anyalala. Nthawi zambiri, kuphatikiza kwa peptide kumachitika pang'onopang'ono kuchokera ku C-terminus kupita ku N-terminus, motsutsana ndi biosynthesis pa ribosomes. Njira yophatikizira mankhwala imapanga ma peptides afupipafupi a ma immunogenic (epitopes), omwe amathandizidwa ndikuyika nyama kuti apeze ma antibodies ena kapena ma hybridomas. Kuphatikiza apo, njirayi imagwiritsidwanso ntchito kuti mupeze zoletsa ma enzyme ena. Chemical synthesis imalola kuyambitsidwa kwa zotsalira za amino acid zomwe sizimapezeka m'mapuloteni wamba, mwachitsanzo, omwe ali ndi zilembo za fluorescence zomata m'matumbo awo. Njira zamankhwala zosakanikira zama protein zimakhala ndi malire angapo: sizothandiza ndi kutalika kwa mapuloteni opitilira 300 amino acid, mapuloteni opanga zinthu amatha kukhala osakhazikika kapangidwe kake ndikusowa kusintha kosinthira pambuyo pomasulira (onani pansipa).

Kusintha pambuyo pa kumasulira

Ntchito yomasulira ikamalizidwa, mapuloteni ambiri amasinthidwanso amtundu wina omwe amachedwa kusintha kumasulira. Zoposa mazana awiri zakusinthidwa kwa kusintha kwa mapuloteni ndizodziwika.

Kusintha pambuyo pa kumasulira kumatha kuwongolera moyo wamapuloteni omwe amapezeka mu cell, ntchito yawo ya enzymatic ndikuchita ndi mapuloteni ena. Nthawi zina, kusintha kwa masinthidwe ndikumasinthasintha kwamapuloteni, apo ayi amakhala osagwira. Mwachitsanzo, pakusintha kwa insulin ndi mahomoni ena, kuphatikiza mapuloteni ochepa a polypeptide amafunikira, ndipo mwa kusasitsa kwa mapuloteni am'mimba a plasma, glycosylation imafunika.

Zosintha pambuyo pa kumasulira zimatha kukhala zofala komanso zosowa, mpaka zapadera. Mwachitsanzo pakusintha kwachilengedwe ndi ubiquitination (kuphatikiza tinthu tambiri tating'onoting'ono tomwe timayambitsa protein yaying'ono), womwe umakhala chizindikiro cha mapuloteni awa. Kusintha kwina kofala ndi glycosylation - akuti pafupifupi theka la mapuloteni amunthu ali glycosylated. Zosintha zochepa siziphatikizapo kuchepa / kuwonongeka ndi polyglycylation wa tubulin.

Pulogalamu imodzi yemweyo imatha kusintha masinthidwe ambiri. Chifukwa chake, ma histones (mapuloteni omwe ali gawo la chromatin mu eukaryotes) pamikhalidwe yosiyanasiyana amatha kusintha zosintha zoposa 150.

Zosintha pambuyo pa kumasulira zimagawidwa kukhala:

• zosintha zazikulu,
  • kuchuluka kwa zotsalira za N-terminal methionine,
  • proteinolysis yochepa - kuchotsedwa kwa chidutswa cha mapuloteni chomwe chimatha kuchokera kumapeto (kugawanika kwa masanjidwe a chizindikiro) kapena, nthawi zina, mkati mwa molekyulu (kusinthika kwa insulin),
  • kuphatikiza kwamagulu osiyanasiyana am'magulu kuti amamasule amino ndi ma carboxyl (N-acylation, myristoylation, etc.),
• masinthidwe am'mbali mwa amino acid,
  • kuphatikiza kapena kufalikira kwamagulu ang'onoang'ono amakankhwala (glycosylation, phosphorylation, etc.),
  • kuphatikiza kwa lipids ndi ma hydrocarbons,
  • kusintha kwa zotsalira za amino acid kukhala zosagwirizana (kupangika kwa citrulline),
  • Kupanga milatho yopanda zotsalira pakati zotsalira za cysteine,
• kuphatikiza mapuloteni ang'onoang'ono (kuchuluka ndi kuchuluka kwa zinthu).

Intracellular mayendedwe ndi kukonza

Mapuloteni omwe amapangidwa mu cytoplasm ya cell ya eukaryotic ayenera kupita ku ma cell osiyanasiyana a ma cell: ma nyukiliya, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (EPR), zida za golgi, lysosomes, ndi zina, ndipo mapuloteni ena ayenera kulowa mkati. Kuti alowe gawo lina la selo, mapuloteniwa ayenera kukhala ndi chizindikiro. Nthawi zambiri, cholembera choterechi ndi gawo la mapuloteni amino acid (peptide, kapena mapuloteni a proteni), koma nthawi zina, ma oligosaccharides omwe amaphatikizidwa ndi mapuloteni ndiwolemba.

Kutumiza kwa mapuloteni mu EPR kumachitika momwe amapangidwira, chifukwa ma ribosomes amapanga mapuloteni okhala ndi chisonyezo cha EPR "kukhala" pamapuloteni apadera pamtundu wake wakunja. Kuchokera ku EPR kupita ku zida za Golgi, ndipo kuchokera pamenepo kupita ku ma lysosomes ndi kupita ku membrane wakunja kapena kupita kwina, mapuloteni amalowa kudzera pa zotengera za vesicular. Mapuloteni okhala ndi siginito ya nyukiliya amalowa mu nyukiliya kudzera mu zida za nyukiliya. Mu mitochondria ndi chloroplasts, mapuloteni omwe ali ndi zigwirizano za siginecha amalowa kudzera m'matanthauzira apadera a protein.

Kusamalira kapangidwe ndi kuwonongeka

Kusunga makonzedwe oyenera a mapuloteni ndikofunikira kuti magwiridwe awo azikhala bwino. Kukhazikika kolakwika kwa mapuloteni omwe amatsogolera pakuphatikizana kwawo kumatha kuchitika chifukwa cha masinthidwe, makutidwe a okosijeni, kupsinjika, kapena kusintha kwapadziko lonse mu thupi. Kukalamba kwa mapuloteni ndi chizindikiro cha ukalamba. Amakhulupirira kuti kupukusa mapuloteni osayenera ndikomwe kumayambitsa kapena kukulitsa matenda monga cystic fibrosis, matenda a lysosomal. komanso zovuta zama neurodegenerative (Alzheimer's, Huntington ndi Parkinson's).

Pakusintha kwa maselo, njira zinayi zakonzedwa kuti athane ndi mapuloteni. Zoyambirira ziwiri - kubwereza (kusinthanso) mothandizidwa ndi ma chaperone ndi ma cleavage omwe ali ndi mapuloteni - amapezeka mu mabakiteriya komanso pazinthu zazikulu. Autophagy ndi kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni osakulidwa bwino m'magulu apadera omwe si a membrane ndi mawonekedwe a eukaryotes.

Kutha kwamapuloteni kubwezeretsa kapangidwe koyenera ka mbali zitatu pambuyo pa kusinthika kwatilola kuti tilingalire kuti chidziwitso chonse cha mapangidwe omaliza a mapuloteni ali mu machitidwe ake a amino acid. Pakadali pano, chiphunzitso chakuti puloteni yokhazikika ya puloteni imakhala ndi mphamvu zochepa zaulere poyerekeza ndi ma polypeptide ena.

M'maselo mumakhala gulu la mapuloteni omwe ntchito yawo ndikuwonetsetsa kuti mapuloteni ena atapangidwa pambuyo pa ribosome, kuti abwezeretse mawonekedwe a mapuloteni atawonongeka, komanso kupanga ndi kudzipatula kwa mapuloteni. Mapuloteni awa amatchedwa ma chaperones. Kuchuluka kwa ma chaptones ambiri mchipindamu kumawonjezeka ndi kuwonjezeka kwambiri kwa kutentha kwake, chifukwa chake ali m'gulu la Hsp (mapuloteni otentha a Chingerezi - mapuloteni otentha). Kufunika kwa magwiridwe antchito abwinobwino a chaptones pakugwira ntchito kwa thupi tingafanizire ndi chitsanzo cha α-crystallin chaperone, yomwe ndi gawo la magonedwe amaso a munthu. Kusintha kwa mapuloteniwa kumapangitsa kuti mandimu awonongeke chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni, motero, kumayambitsa matenda amanjenje.

Ngati mapangidwe apamwamba a mapuloteni sangabwezeretsedwe, amawonongeka ndi khungu. Ma Enzymes omwe amadetsa mapuloteni amatchedwa proteinase.Pomwe akuwukira molekyu yapansi, michere ya proteinolytic imagawidwa mu endopeptidases ndi exopeptidases:

• Endopeptidases, kapena mapuloteni, zomata zomangira peptide mkati mwa tchuthi. Amazindikira ndikumata peptide yocheperako ya magawo amodzi ndipo makamaka amachepetsa kulumikizana pakati pazotsalira za amino acid.
• Exqueptidases hydrolyze peptides kuchokera kumalekezero a unyolo: aminopeptidases ochokera ku N-terminus, carboxypeptidases kuchokera ku C-terminus. Pomaliza, ma dipeptidases amangomanga ma dipeptides okha.

Malinga ndi makina a catalysis, International Union for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology imazindikira mitundu ingapo ya mapuloteni, kuphatikiza ma serine proteinase, maartartic proteinase, cysteine ​​proteinase, ndi metalloproteases.

Mtundu wapadera wa proteinase ndi proteasome, proteinase yama multisubunit yambiri yomwe ilipo mu nyukiliya ndi cytoplasm ya eukaryotes, archaea, ndi mabakiteriya ena.

Kuti mapuloteni ofunikirawa asungidwe ndi mapuloteni, ayenera kulembedwa mwa kuphatikiza mapuloteni ochepa a ubiquitin. Zowonjezera za ubiquitin zimagwidwa ndi ma enzymes ubiquitin ligases. Kuphatikizidwa kwa molekyulu yoyamba ya ubiquitin ku puloteni imakhala chisonyezo cha ma ligases kuti iwonjezere ma mocquin a ubiquitin. Zotsatira zake, unyolo wa polyubiquitin umalumikizidwa ndi mapuloteni, omwe amamangiriza mapuloteni ndipo amatsimikizira kutsimikizika kwa mapuloteni omwe akufuna. Mwambiri, dongosololi limatchedwa kuchepa kwa protein ya ubiquitin. Kuwonongeka kwa 80-90% ya mapuloteni amkati amapezeka ndi gawo la proteinasome.

Kuwonongeka kwa mapuloteni m'magazi a peroxisomes ndikofunikira pama cellular ambiri, kuphatikiza ma cell kuzungulira, kutsutsana kwa mawonekedwe a jini, komanso kuyankha kwa oxidative nkhawa.

Autophagy ndiyo njira yowonongera ma biomolecule omwe akhala ndi moyo kwa nthawi yayitali, makamaka mapuloteni, komanso ma organelles mu lysosomes (mwa zolengedwa zazikazi) kapena vaccinles (yisiti). Autophagy imayenda ndi ntchito yofunikira ya maselo abwinobwino, koma kuchepa kwa michere, kupezeka kwa ma organelles owonongeka mu cytoplasm ndipo, pamapeto pake, kupezeka kwa mapuloteni osakanikirana ndi ma protein omwe amaphatikizidwa mu cytoplasm amatha kukhala othandizira kukulitsa kusintha kwa ma cell a cell.

Mitundu itatu ya autophagy imasiyanitsidwa: microautophagy, macroautophagy, ndi autellgy-yotsamira kwa chaperone.

Panthawi ya microautophagy, macromolecules ndi zidutswa za cell membranes zimagwidwa ndi lysosome. Mwanjira imeneyi, khungu limatha kugaya mapuloteni osowa mphamvu kapena zinthu zomanga (mwachitsanzo, nthawi yanjala). Koma njira za microautophagy zimachitika munthawi yoyenera ndipo nthawi zambiri zimakhala zopanda tsankho. Nthawi zina ma organoids amakumbidwanso panthawi ya microautophagy, mwachitsanzo, ma microautophagy a peroxisomes ndi gawo pang'ono la a celliut cell omwe selo limakhalabe lothandiza limafotokozedwa yisiti.

Mu macroautophagy, gawo la cytoplasm (lomwe nthawi zambiri limakhala ndi organoids iliyonse) limazunguliridwa ndi chipinda cha membrane chofanana ndi chitsime cha endoplasmic reticulum. Zotsatira zake, tsamba ili limasiyanitsidwa ndi ena onse a cytoplasm ndi ziwalo ziwiri. Ma membrane awiri amtunduwu amatchedwa autophagosomes. Autophagosomes kuphatikiza ndi lysosomes, ndikupanga autophagolysosomes, momwe ma organelles ndi zina zonse za autophagosomes zimayimbidwira. Zikuwoneka kuti macroautophagy amakhalanso osasankha, ngakhale nthawi zambiri amatsimikiziridwa kuti ndi chithandizo chake khungu limatha kuthana ndi maano omwe "adatha" (mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.).

Mtundu wachitatu wa autophagy ndi wodalira ma chaperone. Mwanjira imeneyi, kulowetsedwa kwa mapuloteni pang'ono osayatsidwa kuchokera ku cytoplasm kudzera mwa lysosome membrane kupita kumtundu wake kumachitika, komwe amakugaya. Mtundu wamtunduwu, womwe umafotokozedwa mwa zolengedwa zokha, umayambitsa nkhawa.

JUNQ ndi IPOD

Pamavuto, pamene khungu la eukaryotic silingathe kuthana ndi kuchuluka kwamapuloteni ambiri, amatha kutumizidwa kumodzi mwa mitundu iwiri ya ma organelles osakhalitsa - JUNQ ndi IPOD (Chingerezi) Russian. .

JUNQ (Eng. JUxta Nuclear Quality control complements) imalumikizidwa ndi mbali yakunja ya membrane wa nyukiliya ndipo imakhala ndi mapuloteni obisika omwe amatha kusunthira mwachangu mu cytoplasm, komanso ma chaperones ndi proteinasomes. Ntchito ya JUNQ ndikusintha mapuloteni komanso / kapena kuwononga mapuloteni.

IPOD (English Insoluble Protein Deposit - malo omwe amapezeka mapuloteni osakwanira) ili pafupi ndi vacuole chapakati ndipo imakhala ndi mapuloteni okhala ndi ma protein a amyloid. Kukhazikika kwa mapuloteni awa ku IPOD kumatha kulepheretsa kuyanjana kwawo ndi ma cell wamba, motero, akukhulupirira kuti kuphatikiza uku kumakhala ndi ntchito yoteteza.

Ntchito za mapuloteni m'thupi

Monga macromolecules ena achilengedwe (ma polysaccharides, lipids ndi ma nucleic acids), mapuloteni ndi zinthu zofunika kwambiri pazamoyo zonse ndipo amatenga gawo lofunikira m'moyo wa khungu. Mapuloteni amachita kagayidwe kachakudya. Ndi gawo limodzi la zigawo zina zapakati pa nyumba - ma organelles ndi cytoskeleton, omwe amatulutsidwa m'malo ena, komwe amatha kuchita ngati chizindikiridwe pakati pa maselo, kutenga nawo mbali mu hydrolysis ya chakudya komanso mapangidwe a zinthu zina.

Kugawika kwa mapuloteni monga momwe amagwirira ntchito ndikosachita motsutsana, popeza mapuloteni omwewo amatha kuchita ntchito zingapo. Chitsanzo chophunziridwa bwino cha ntchito zambiri zoterezi ndi lysyl tRNA synthetase, enzyme yochokera ku gulu la aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, yomwe sikuti imangofikira zotsalira za tysNA tRNA, komanso yosindikiza magawo angapo. Mapuloteni amachita ntchito zambiri chifukwa cha enzymatic ntchito yawo. Chifukwa chake ma enzymewa ndi mapuloteni a myosin motor, mapuloteni owongolera a kinase, kunyamula mapuloteni a sodium-potaziyamu adenosine triphosphatase, etc.

Ntchito yothandizira

Ntchito yodziwika bwino ya mapuloteni m'thupi ndi kupangika kwa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya mankhwala. Ma Enzymes ndi mapuloteni omwe amakhala ndi mphamvu yothandizira, ndiye kuti enzyme iliyonse imathandizira kusintha kofananako. Enzymes imathandizira kugawanika kwa mamolekyulu (catabolism) ndi kaphatikizidwe kake (anabolism), kuphatikizapo kubwereza kwa DNA ndikukonzanso komanso kaphatikizidwe ka matrix RNA. Pofika chaka cha 2013, ma enzyme oposa 5,000 adafotokozedwa. Kuthamanga kwa zomwe zimachitika chifukwa cha enzymatic catalysis kumatha kukhala kwakukulu: zomwe zimapangidwira ndi enzyme orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase, mwachitsanzo, zimadutsa nthawi yokwana 10 17 kuposa wosachiritsika (theka la moyo wa decarboxylation wa orotic acid ali ndi zaka mamiliyoni 78 opanda enzyme. Mamolekyu omwe amalumikizana ndi enzyme ndikusintha chifukwa cha zomwe zimachitikazo amatchedwa gawo lapansi.

Ngakhale ma enzyme nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi mabungwe mazana a amino acid, ochepa okha ndi omwe amaphatikizana ndi gawo lapansi, ndipo ngakhale ochepa - ambiri pafupifupi amino acid zotsalira, omwe nthawi zambiri amakhala kutali ndi wina ndi mzake pakapangidwe koyamba - amagwira nawo limodzi ku matenda a catalysis. Gawo la molekyu ya enzyme yomwe imapangitsa kumanga kwa gawo lapansi ndi catalysis imatchedwa kuti Center yogwira.

Mu 1992, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology inapanga mtundu womaliza wa maulalo a ma enzymes kutengera mtundu wa zoyesayesa zomwe zimawalimbikitsa. Malinga ndi izi, maina a ma enzyme ayenera kukhala ndi mathero -zoyambira Pangani maina a zomwe zimathandizira kuti aziganiza komanso magawo awo. Enzyme iliyonse imapatsidwa kachidindo komwe kamakhala kosavuta kudziwa komwe kali mu ma enzymes.Malinga ndi mtundu wa zophatikizika, ma enzymes onse amagawidwa m'magulu 6:

• CF 1: oxidoreductase yomwe imapangitsa kuti redox ichitike,
• CF 2: Kutumiza komwe kumapangitsa kuti magulu a ma cell atulutsidwe kuchoka ku gawo limodzi kupita ku lina,
• CF 3: Ma Hydrolases omwe amayambitsa ma hydrolysis a ma cell binds,
• CF 4: Milandu imayambitsa kudula kwa zomangira zam'madzi popanda hydrolysis ndikupanga chomangira chimodzi m'magululi,
• CF 5: Ma Isomerase omwe amachititsa kusintha kwa masanjidwe kapena geometric mu molekyu yaying'ono,
• CF 6: Zovala zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale kupangika kwa ma cell am'mimba pakati pa gawo chifukwa cha hydrolysis ya ATP diphosphate bond kapena triphosphate yofanana.

Ntchito zamapangidwe

Mapuloteni apangidwe a cytoskeleton, monga mtundu wa mkono, amapereka mawonekedwe kwa maselo ndi ma psychanoids ambiri ndipo amathandizira kusintha mawonekedwe a maselo. Mapuloteni ambiri opanga mawonekedwe: Collagen ndi elastin ndizofunikira kwambiri pakapangidwe kazinthu zingapo (mwachitsanzo, cartilage), ndi tsitsi, misomali, nthenga za mbalame ndi zipolopolo zina zimapangidwa ndi puloteni ina ya keratin.

Ntchito yoteteza

Pali mitundu ingapo ya ntchito zoteteza ma protein:

1. Chitetezo chakuthupi. Kuteteza thupi kuperekedwa ndi collagen, puloteni yomwe imapanga maziko a zinthu zomwe zimalumikizana ndi khungu (kuphatikizapo mafupa, cartilage, tendon ndi zigawo zikuluzikulu za khungu (dermis)), keratin, yomwe imakhala maziko a zishango zazikulu, tsitsi, nthenga, nyanga ndi zina zotuluka za khungu. Mwachizolowezi, mapuloteni oterewa amawonedwa ngati mapuloteni omwe ali ndi ntchito yopanga. Zitsanzo za mapuloteni a gululi ndi fibrinogen ndi thrombin omwe amaphatikizidwa ndimagazi.
2. Chitetezo cha mankhwala. Kumangidwa kwa poizoni kuphatikiza mamolekyulu a puloteni kungapereke kutulutsa kwawo. Udindo wofunikira kwambiri pakupatsa anthu mphamvu m'thupi umaseweredwa ndi ma enzyme a chiwindi omwe amaphwanya ziphe kapena kuwasandutsa mawonekedwe osungunuka, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti achotse thupi mwachangu.
3. Chitetezo cha chitetezo. Mapuloteni omwe amapanga magazi ndi zinthu zina zamthupi zimathandizira chitetezo cha thupi pakuwonongeka komanso kuwukira kwa tizilombo toyambitsa matenda. Mapuloteni a dongosolo lowonjezera komanso ma antibodies (ma immunoglobulins) ali m'mapuloteni a gulu lachiwiri, amathandizira mabakiteriya, ma virus kapena mapuloteni akunja. Ma antibodies omwe ali m'gulu la chitetezo chamthupi chogwiritsa ntchito, zomwe zimalumikizidwa ku zinthu zakunja kwa thupi, ma antigen, ndipo potero amawasokoneza, kuwatsogolera kumalo owonongeka. Ma antibodies amatha kutulutsidwa mkati mwa malo othandizira kapena okhazikika mwa michere ya B-lymphocyte yapadera yotchedwa plasmocytes.

Ntchito yoyendetsera

Njira zambiri mkati mwa maselo zimayendetsedwa ndi mamolekyulu a protein, omwe sakhala opatsa mphamvu kapena zinthu zomanga selo. Mapuloteni awa amawongolera kupititsa patsogolo kwamaselo mu kusintha kwa maselo, kulemba, kutanthauzira, kuloza, zochita za mapuloteni ena komanso njira zina zambiri. Mapuloteni amagwira ntchito yoyang'anira ngakhale chifukwa cha enzymatic ntchito (mwachitsanzo, protein kinases), kapena chifukwa chomangiriza mamolekyule ena. Chifukwa chake, zolembera, mapuloteni othandizira ndi mapuloteni ojambulira, amatha kuwongolera kukula kwa majini pomangika motsatira ndondomeko zawo. Pa gawo lomasulira, kuwerenga kwa ma mRNA ambiri kumayendetsedwanso ndi kuwonjezeredwa kwa mapuloteni.

Udindo wofunikira kwambiri pakuwunikira njira zamkati mwake umaseweredwa ndi mapuloteni a protein ndi phosphatases - ma enzymes omwe amachititsa kapena kuletsa ntchito ya mapuloteni ena powagwirira ntchito kapena pothetsa magulu a phosphate.

Ntchito ya Chizindikiro

Ntchito ya chizindikiro cha mapuloteni ndi kuthekera kwa mapuloteni kuti azitha kugwira ntchito monga chisonyezo, kufalitsa zizindikilo pakati pa maselo, minofu, ziwalo ndi zinthu. Nthawi zambiri, ntchito ya siginecha imaphatikizidwa ndi yoyang'anira, chifukwa mapuloteni ambiri amtundu wa intracellular amatumizanso ma sign.

Ntchito yosayinira imachitika ndi mapuloteni a mahomoni, ma cytokines, kukula kwa zinthu, etc.

Mahomoni amatengedwa ndi magazi. Mahomoni ambiri achinyama ndi mapuloteni kapena ma peptides. Kumangiriza kwa mahomoni ku cholandirira chake ndi chizindikiro chomwe chimayambitsa kuyankha kwa ma cell. Mahomoni amawongolera kuchuluka kwa zinthu m'magazi ndi maselo, kukula, kubereka komanso njira zina. Chitsanzo cha mapuloteni oterewa ndi insulin, yomwe imayang'anira kuchuluka kwa shuga m'magazi.

Maselo amalumikizana wina ndi mnzake pogwiritsa ntchito mapuloteni opatsirana kudzera mwa chinthu chogulitsira zinthu. Mapuloteni oterewa amaphatikizapo, mwachitsanzo, ma cytokines ndi kukula kwa zinthu.

Ma Cytokines ndi ma peptide osonyeza ma mamolekyu. Amayang'anira kuyanjana pakati pa maselo, kudziwa kupulumuka kwake, kusinthitsa kapena kuletsa kukula, kusiyanitsa, magwiridwe antchito ndi apoptosis, kuonetsetsa mgwirizano wa chitetezo cha mthupi, endocrine ndi mantha. Chitsanzo cha ma cytokines ndi chotupa necrosis factor, chomwe chimadutsa zizindikiritso pakati pa maselo amthupi.

Ntchito ya Spare (yoyimirira)

Mapuloteni oterewa amaphatikiza mapuloteni otchedwa reservation, omwe amasungidwa ngati gwero lamphamvu komanso zinthu mu mbewu zamasamba (mwachitsanzo, 7S ndi 11S globulins) ndi mazira a nyama. Mapuloteni ena angapo amagwiritsidwa ntchito m'thupi ngati gwero la amino acid, omwe amatsogolera michere yogwiritsira ntchito michere yomwe imayendetsa kagayidwe ka metabolic.

Ntchito ya Receptor

Ma protein a protein amatha kupezeka mu cytoplasm ndikuphatikizidwa ndi membrane wa cell. Gawo limodzi la molekyulu ya receptor imalandira chisonyezo, chomwe nthawi zambiri chimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi mankhwala, ndipo nthawi zina - kupepuka, kupsinjika kwamakina (mwachitsanzo, kutambasula) ndi zina zoyambira. Chizindikiro chikawonetsedwa ndi gawo linalake la molekyulu - mapuloteni a receptor - kusintha kwake kwachilengedwe kumachitika. Zotsatira zake, kuphatikizika kwa gawo lina la molekyulu, yomwe imapereka chizindikirocho kumagawo ena am'melo, kusintha. Pali njira zingapo zotumizira mauthenga. Ma receptor ena amachepetsa mphamvu inayake ya mankhwala, enanso amakhala ngati ma ion, omwe amatsegula kapena kutseka chisonyezo, pomwe ena amamanga mamolekyulu ogwirizana kwambiri. Pa receptors membrane, gawo la molekyu yomwe imalumikizana ndi molekyulu ya chizindikiro ili pamwamba pa cell, ndipo domain yomwe imatsitsa chizindikirocho imakhala mkati.

Ntchito yamagalimoto (mota)

Gulu lonse la mapuloteni opanga ma motor limapereka kayendedwe ka thupi, mwachitsanzo, kuchepa kwa minofu, kuphatikizapo locomotion (myosin), kuyenda kwa maselo mkati mwa thupi (mwachitsanzo, kayendedwe ka amoeboid leukocytes), kayendedwe ka cilia ndi flagella, komanso kayendedwe kazinthu zowongolera komanso zowongolera zamkati (kinesin, dynein) . Dyneins ndi ma kineins amayendetsa mamolekyu mozungulira ma microtubules ogwiritsa ntchito ATP hydrolysis ngati mphamvu. Dyneins amasamutsa mamolekyulu ndi ma cellelles ochokera ku zotumphukira za cell kulowera ku centrosome, ma kinesins - mbali inayo. Dyneins amathandizanso pakuyenda kwa cilia ndi flagella wa eukaryotes. Mitundu ya Cytoplasmic ya myosin imatha kutenga nawo gawo pa kayendedwe ka mamolekyulu ndi ma granoid kudzera microfilaments.

Mapuloteni mu kagayidwe

Tizilombo tating'onoting'ono tambiri komanso mbewu zimatha kupanga ma amino acid okwanira 20, komanso zina zowonjezera (zosavomerezeka) za amino acid, monga citrulline.Koma ngati ma amino acid ali m'chilengedwe, ngakhale tizilombo tating'onoting'ono timene timasunga mphamvu ponyamula ma amino acid mu maselo ndikuzimitsa njira zawo zosanja.

Ma amino acid omwe sangapangidwe ndi nyama amatchedwa ofunikira. Ma enzymes ofunikira kwambiri m'njira ziwiri, mwachitsanzo, a spartate kinase, omwe amathandiza gawo loyamba pakapangidwe ka lysine, methionine ndi threonine kuchokera ku aspartate, palibe nyama.

Nyama zimapeza ma amino acid kuchokera ku mapuloteni omwe amapezeka mu chakudya. Mapuloteni amawonongeka pakudya chimbudzi, chomwe nthawi zambiri chimayamba ndi kupangika kwa mapuloteniwo ndikuchiyika m'malo achilengedwe ndikuwonjezera hydrolyzing pogwiritsa ntchito michere yotchedwa proteinases. Ma amino acid omwe amapezeka chifukwa cha chimbudzi amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupangira mapuloteni amthupi, pomwe ena onse amasinthidwa kukhala glucose panthawi ya gluconeogenesis kapena amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuzungulira kwa Krebs. Kugwiritsa ntchito mapuloteni ngati gwero lamagetsi ndikofunikira makamaka pazosala, pamene mapuloteni enieni a thupi, makamaka minofu, amakhala gwero lamphamvu. Amino acid ndi gwero lofunikira la nayitrogeni m'zakudya zathupi.

Palibe miyezo yogwirizana yomwe anthu amatha kudya mapuloteni. Ma microflora am'matumbo akulu amapanga amino acid omwe sawaganizira pokonzekera mapuloteni.

Njira zophunzirira

Kapangidwe ndi ntchito za mapuloteni zimawerengedwa zonse pokonzekera mu vitro, ndi m'malo awo achilengedwe. mu vivo. Kafukufuku wamapuloteni oyera omwe amayang'aniridwa ndikofunikira kuti azitha kudziwa ntchito zawo: ziwonetsero zamagulu othandizira a ma enzymes, kuyenderana kwa magawo osiyanasiyana, etc. maphunziro a Protein mu vivo m'maselo kapena chilichonse chamoyo chonse chimapereka zowonjezera zokhudzana ndi komwe zimagwira komanso momwe ntchito zawo zimayendetsedwera.

Biology yama cell ndi ma cell

Njira zamankhwala opanga ma cell ndi ma cell zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pophunzira mapangidwe ndi kupezeka kwa mapuloteni mu khungu. Njira yowerengera kutengera komweku imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri, potengera kapangidwe ka mapuloteni amtundu wina mu khungu, wopangidwa ndi mapuloteni omwe amawerengedwa, olumikizidwa ndi "mtolankhani", mwachitsanzo, mapuloteni obiriwira a fluorescent (GFP). Malo omwe mapuloteni otere ali mu khungu amatha kuwoneka pogwiritsa ntchito ma microscope. Kuphatikiza apo, mapuloteni amatha kuonedwa pogwiritsa ntchito ma antibodies omwe amawazindikira, omwewo amakhala ndi chizindikiro cha fluorescent. Nthawi zambiri, munthawi yomweyo ndimapuloteni omwe amaphunziridwa, mapuloteni omwe amadziwika nthawi zambiri monga endoplasmic reticulum, zida za Golgi, lysosomes, ndi vaccinles amawonetsedwa, zomwe zimapangitsa kutsimikiza kwachidziwikire komwe mapuloteni amaphunziridwa.

Njira za immunohistochemical nthawi zambiri zimagwiritsa ntchito ma antibodies omwe amaphatikizidwa ndi ma enzyme omwe amathandizira kupanga mawonekedwe a luminescent kapena achikuda, omwe amakupatsani mwayi kufananitsa kutulutsa ndi kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni omwe amaphunziridwa m'masampulawo. Njira yina yosowa yodziwira komwe amapangira mapuloteni ndi kufalikira kwa masanjidwe am'magazi mu gradient ya sucrose kapena cesium chloride.

Pomaliza, imodzi mwanjira zachikhalidwe ndi immunoelectronic microscopy, yomwe ili yofanana ndi ma immunofluorescence ma microscopy omwe amasiyana kuti ma ma microscope amagwiritsidwa ntchito. Mtunduwu umakonzedwa ndi ma maikulosikopu a elekitoni, kenako nkukakonza ndi ma antibodies kumapuloteni omwe amalumikizidwa ndi zinthu zamagetsi zamagetsi, nthawi zambiri amakhala golide.

Pogwiritsa ntchito mutagenesis wotsogozedwa ndi tsamba, ofufuza amatha kusintha mapuloteni a amino acid motero, kapangidwe kake, malo omwe amapezeka mu khungu ndi momwe amagwirira ntchito. Pogwiritsa ntchito njirayi, pogwiritsa ntchito ma TRNA osinthika, ma amino acid opanga amathanso kuyambitsa mapuloteni ndipo mapuloteni okhala ndi zinthu zatsopano amatha kupanga.

Zosiyanasiyana

Kupanga kusanthula mu vitro mapuloteni amayenera kutsukidwa kuchokera ku ma cell ena. Izi nthawi zambiri zimayamba ndi kuwonongeka kwa maselo ndikupeza zomwe zimatchedwa kuti cell cell. Kuphatikiza apo, mwa centrifugation ndi ultracentrifugation, Tingafinye titha kugawidwa: kachigawo kakang'ono kamene kali ndi mapuloteni osungunuka, kachigawo komwe kamakhala ndi ma lipids ndi mapuloteni, komanso kachigawo kakang'ono kamene kali ndi ma cell organelles ndi ma nucleic acid.

Mpweya wamapuloteni pogwiritsa ntchito mchere umagwiritsidwa ntchito kupatula zosakanikirana zamaproteni, komanso zimathandizira mapuloteni. Kusanthula kwamaganizidwe (centrifugation) kumakupatsani mwayi wopanga mapuloteni osakanikirana ndi kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni amtundu uliwonse, omwe amayeza mu svedbergs (S). Mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya chromatography imagwiritsidwa ntchito kupatula mapuloteni ofunikira kapena mapuloteni malinga ndi katundu monga kulemera kwa maselo, kulipira, ndi kuyanjana. Kuphatikiza apo, mapuloteni amatha kudzipatula malinga ndi mtengo wawo pogwiritsa ntchito electrofocus.

Kuti muchepetse njira yoyeretsera mapuloteni, kupanga ma genetic kumagwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi zambiri, komwe kumakupatsani mwayi wopanga mapuloteni omwe ali oyenera kuyeretsa osakhudza kapangidwe kake kapena ntchito zawo. "Zolemba", zomwe ndizofanana ndi amino acid, mwachitsanzo, gulu la zotsalira za 6 kapena zingapo za histidine, ndipo zimangirizidwa kumapeto kumapulogalamu ena. Pamene maselo opanga mapuloteni "olembedwa" adutsa gawo la chromatographic lomwe limakhala ndi ma nickel ion, histidine imamangiriza ndi nickel ndikukhalabe pamizere, pomwe mbali zotsala za lysate zimadutsa pamzere wosasokoneza (nickel-chelate chromatography). Zolemba zina zambiri zakonzedwa kuti zithandizire ofufuza kupatula mapuloteni ena kuchokera muzosakaniza zovuta, nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito kuyenderana kwa chromatography.

Mlingo wa kuyeretsa kwamapuloteni ukhoza kutsimikizika ngati kuchuluka kwake kwamankhwala ndi mfundo ya isoelectric imadziwika - pogwiritsa ntchito mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya gel electrophoresis - kapena poyesa ntchito ya enzymatic ngati puloteni ili ndi enzyme. Kupenyetsetsa kwakukulu kumakuthandizani kuzindikira mapuloteni osankhidwa ndi kulemera kwake komanso kuchuluka kwa zidutswa zake.

Mapuloteni

Kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni am'maselo kumatchedwa proteinome, kafukufuku wake - mapuloteni, omwe amatchedwa kufananizira ndi genomics. Njira zazikulu zoyesera zama proteinomics ndi monga:

• 2D electrophoresis, yomwe imalola kulekanitsa mitundu yambiri yamapuloteni osakanikirana,
• misa yowonera zinthu zambiri, yomwe imalola kuti azindikiritse mapuloteni chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa mapangidwe awo apamwamba kwambiri,
• ma protein ochepa, omwe amakupatsani mwayi womwewo kuchuluka kwa mapuloteni ambiri mu cell,
• Awiri yisiti wosakanizidwa dongosolo , yomwe imakuthandizani kuti muzitha kuphunzira mwadongosolo mapuloteni ndi mapuloteni.

Kutalika kwa zonse zokhudzana ndi mapuloteni omwe amapanga ma cell mu cell amatchedwa kuyenderana. Kafukufuku wolongosoka kapangidwe ka mapuloteni omwe amaimira mitundu yonse yomwe ingagwiritsidwe ntchito yamtundu wotchedwa teromary.

Kuneneratu Kapangidwe Kake ndi Kusintha

Kuneneratu kwa kapangidwe ka malo pogwiritsa ntchito mapulogalamu amakompyuta (mu silico) imalola kupanga mapuloteni omwe mapulani ake sanapangidwebe kuti ayesedwe. Mtundu wopambana kwambiri wa kulosera kwamakedzedwe, womwe umadziwika kuti modelling, umatengera dongosolo lomwe lidalipo la "template", lofananira ndi mapuloteni amino acid. Njira zoneneratu kapangidwe ka mapuloteni amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga mapulotini, mothandizidwa ndi momwe mapuloteni atsopano amapezeka kale. Chovuta china chovuta kwambiri ndikulosera kwazomwe zimachitika pakati pamagetsi, monga ma moleck docking ndi kulosera kwa mapuloteni othandizira mapuloteni.

Mapuloteni ndi kuphatikiza kwapakati pa mapuloteni amatha kusinthidwa pogwiritsa ntchito ma mechanics a mamolekyulu. , makamaka, ma molekyulu mphamvu ndi njira ya Monte Carlo, omwe akutenga mwayi wofanana ndikugawa ma computer (mwachitsanzo, polojekiti ya Folding @ home).Kukulunga kwa madongosolo ang'ono a mapuloteni a cy-helical, monga mapuloteni a villin kapena imodzi mwa mapuloteni a HIV, adapangidwa bwino mu silico. Pogwiritsa ntchito njira zosakanizidwa zomwe zimaphatikiza ma molekyulu wamba ndi ma processum mechanics, mayiko a zamagetsi a pigod rhinopsin afufuzidwa.