Kodi kagayidwe ndi chiyani?

Kupenda kapena kusinthana kwa zinthu - Mpangidwe wa mankhwala omwe amapezeka m'cholengedwa chamoyo kuti mukhale ndi moyo. Njira izi zimathandizira kuti zolengedwa zizikula komanso kuchulukana, kusamalira kapangidwe kake ndikuyankha ku zochitika zachilengedwe.

Metabolism nthawi zambiri imagawidwa m'magawo awiri: catabolism ndi anabolism. Panthawi ya catabolism, zinthu zovuta za organic zimasiyira zosavuta, nthawi zambiri zimatulutsa mphamvu. Ndipo machitidwe a anabolism - kuchokera kosavuta kwambiri zinthu zina zovuta kupanga zimapangidwa ndipo izi zimatsatiridwa ndi mtengo wamagetsi.

Mitundu ingapo ya zochita za metabolism zimatchedwa metabolic pathways. Mwa iwo, pogwiritsa ntchito ma enzymes, ma mamolekyulamu ofunikira kwambiri amasinthidwa kukhala ena.

Ma Enzymer amathandiza kwambiri pa kagayidwe kachakudya chifukwa:

• kuchita ngati kwachilengedwe ndikuchepetsa mphamvu yothandizidwa ndi mankhwala,
• amakulolani kuyang'anira njira za metabolic poyankha kusintha kwa maselo kapena ma cell ena.

Zojambula za metabolabol zimakhudza ngati molekyulu inayake ndiyabwino kugwiritsa ntchito ndi thupi ngati mphamvu. Mwachitsanzo, ma prokaryotes ena amagwiritsa ntchito hydrogen sulfide ngati gwero lamphamvu, koma mpweyawu umakhala poizoni kwa nyama. Kuchuluka kwa metabolic kumakhudzanso kuchuluka kwa chakudya chofunikira mthupi.

Ma molekyulu achilengedwe

Njira zazikulu za metabolic ndi zida zake ndizofanana kwa mitundu yambiri, zomwe zimawonetsa umodzi wa zoyambira zonse zamoyo. Mwachitsanzo, ma carboxylic acids, omwe ali apakatikati mwa kayendedwe ka tricarboxylic acid, amapezeka mu zamoyo zonse, kuyambira mabakiteriya kupita ku michere yambiri ya eukaryotic multicellular. Zofanana mu metabolism mwina zikugwirizana ndi kuthekera kwakukulu kwa njira zama metabolic, komanso mawonekedwe awo oyambirira m'mbiri ya chisinthiko.

Ma molekyulu achilengedwe

Zinthu zachilengedwe zomwe zimapanga zinthu zonse zamoyo (nyama, zomera, bowa ndi tizilombo tosiyanasiyana) zimayimiriridwa makamaka ndi amino acid, chakudya, lipids (yomwe nthawi zambiri imatchedwa mafuta) ndi ma nucleic acid. Popeza mamolekyuwo ndi ofunikira pamoyo, kusintha kwa metabolic kumayang'anitsitsa kupanga mamolekyuwo akamanga maselo ndi minofu kapena kuwawononga kuti agwiritsidwe ntchito ngati mphamvu yamagetsi. Zinthu zambiri zofunika zamomwe zimachitika ndikupanga DNA ndi mapuloteni.

Udindo wa Metabolic

Metabolism iyenera kuperekedwa mwachidwi. Kupatula apo, kuperekedwa kwa maselo athu ndi zinthu zofunikira zimatengera ntchito yake yokhazikitsidwa. Maziko a metabolism ndimachitidwe amthupi omwe amapezeka m'thupi la munthu. Zinthu zofunika pamoyo wa thupi zomwe timalandira ndi chakudya.

Kuphatikiza apo, timafunikira mpweya wambiri, womwe timapumira limodzi ndi mpweya. Zoyenera, ziyenera kuonedwa pakati pa njira zomangira ndi kuwonongeka. Komabe, kuwerengera kumeneku nthawi zambiri kumatha kusokonezedwa ndipo pali zifukwa zambiri za izi.

Zoyambitsa matenda a metabolic

Mwa zina zoyambitsa matenda a kagayidwe kachakudya zimadziwika kuti tinatengera chibadwa chathu. Ngakhale ndiwosakanika, ndiyotheka ndipo ndiyofunikira kuthana nayo! Komanso, zovuta za metabolic zimatha kuyambitsidwa ndi matenda achilengedwe. Komabe, nthawi zambiri mavutowa amabwera chifukwa cha kuperewera kwa zakudya m'thupi.

Monga kuchuluka kwazakudya zambiri, ndipo kusowa kwawo kumavulaza thupi lathu. Ndipo zotsatirapo zake sizingasinthe. Zakudya zopitilira muyeso zimachitika chifukwa chomwa zakudya zamafuta kwambiri, ndipo kuchepa kwa zakudya kumachitika chifukwa cha kusamalidwa kwamphamvu kwa zakudya zosiyanasiyana zolemetsa. Chakudya chachikulu nthawi zambiri chimakhala chakudya chochuluka, chomwe chimayambitsa kuperewera kwa michere, motero, izi zimapangitsa kudwala matenda osiyanasiyana. Zomwe zimayambitsa matenda osagwirizana ndi zakudya zambiri.

Matenda a metabolism

Ngakhale titatha kugwiritsa ntchito njira zonse za metabolic, popereka thupi ndi mavitamini omwe akusowa, timakhala pachiwopsezo chotenga matenda ambiri owopsa omwe amabwera chifukwa cha kuwola kwa maselo athu. Zinthu zowola zimakhala ndi chilichonse chamoyo komanso chokulirapo, ndipo mwina ndiye mdani woopsa kwambiri paumoyo wathu. Mwanjira ina, thupilo liyenera kuyeretsedwa ndi poizoni pakapita nthawi, kapena amangoyambitsa poizoni. Kutsalira ochulukirapo, zinthu zowola zimayambitsa matenda osachiritsika ndikuchepetsa ntchito ya chiwalo chonse.

Ndi zovuta zamatumbo a carbohydrate, matenda oopsa amapezeka - matenda a shuga, okhala ndi mafuta osayenera, cholesterol imadziunjikira (Momwe mungachepetse cholesterol kunyumba popanda mankhwala?), Yomwe imayambitsa matenda a mtima ndi mtima. Ma radicals aulere, omwe akukhala ochulukirapo, amathandizira kuti pakhale zotupa zoyipa.

Kunenepa kwambiri kumakhalanso chifukwa chazovuta za metabolic. Gululi limaphatikizaponso gout, matenda am'mimba, mitundu ina ya matenda a shuga, etc. Kuwonekera kwa michere ndi mavitamini kumabweretsa kuwonongeka kwa minofu, mafupa, kusokonezeka kwakukulu kwa mtima dongosolo. Mwa ana, izi zimatha kubweretsa zovuta zazikulu mu mawonekedwe akukula modabwitsa komanso kukula. Ndikofunika kudziwa kuti kugwiritsa ntchito mavitamini owonjezera sikulimbikitsidwa nthawi zonse, chifukwa kuchuluka kwawo kwambiri kumatha kukhalanso ndi zotsatirapo zoyipa.

Kupewa

Kuwongolera kagayidwe kachakudya mthupi lathu, tiyenera kudziwa kuti pali zinthu zina zomwe zimalepheretsa kupangidwa kwa poizoni ndikupititsa patsogolo kagayidwe kachakudya.

Yoyamba ndi mpweya. Mulingo woyenera wa mpweya m'matimu amachititsa kwambiri njira zama metabolic.

Kachiwiri, mavitamini ndi michere. Ndi zaka, njira zonse zimachepa, kufalikira kwa mitsempha yamagazi kumachitika, motero ndikofunikira kuwongolera kulandira kuchuluka kwamaminere, michere ndi mpweya. Izi zitsimikizira ntchito yabwino ya madzi amchere a cell mu cell, popeza pambuyo pakupita kwa nthawi foni imayamba kuzimiririka osalandiranso zinthu zonse zofunika pamoyo wake. Kudziwa izi, ndikofunikira kuti maselo athu achikulire azikulitsa.

Pali malingaliro ndi mankhwala ambiri omwe amawongolera kagayidwe. Mankhwala wowerengeka, White algae algae - fucus, idatchuka kwambiri, ili ndi miyala yofunikira komanso mavitamini ofunikira kuti apangitse metabolism. Zakudya zoyenera, kusiyanitsidwa ndi zakudya zomwe zimakhala ndi cholesterol ndi zinthu zina zovulaza ndi njira ina yothandizira thupi kugwira ntchito mosasamala.

Maphunziro: Moscow Medical Institute I. Sechenov, wapadera - "Bizinesi yazachipatala" mu 1991, mu 1993 "Matenda a Ntchito", mu 1996 "Therapy".

Zopezeka muzapulasitiki: zowona ndi zabodza!

Amino acid ndi mapuloteni Har

Mapuloteni ndi biopolymers ndipo amaphatikizana ndi amino acid zotsalira zomwe zimalumikizidwa ndi ma peptide. Mapuloteni ena ndi ma enzymes komanso amachititsa kuti thupi lizisintha. Mapuloteni ena amagwira ntchito yopanga mawonekedwe (mwachitsanzo, amapanga cytoskeleton). Mapuloteni amathandizanso pakuwonetsa ma cell, mayankho a chitetezo cha mthupi, kuchuluka kwa maselo, kayendedwe kazigawo, komanso kayendetsedwe kazinthu.

Kodi kagayidwe ndi chiyani?

Metabolism (kapena metabolism) ndi kuphatikiza kwa njira zosinthira zopatsa mphamvu zama chakudya kukhala mphamvu ya moyo wa chamoyo. Kupanga metabolism kumayamba ndi kugaya ndi kuchita zolimbitsa thupi, ndikutha ndi kupuma kwamunthuyo mkati mwa kugona, pamene thupi limapereka mpweya ku ziwalo zosiyanasiyana popanda kutenga nawo mbali mu ubongo komanso mokwanira.

Lingaliro la metabolism limagwirizana kwambiri ndi kuwerengera kwa calorie tsiku lililonse, komwe ndiye poyambira m'zakudya zilizonse kuti muchepetse kunenepa kapena minofu ipangidwe. Kutengera zaka, jenda komanso magawo a thupi, kuchuluka kwa kagayidwe kake kotsimikizika - ndiko kuti, kuchuluka kwa zopatsa mphamvu zomwe zimafunikira kuphimba zomwe zimafunikira thupi tsiku ndi tsiku. Mtsogolomo, chizindikirochi chimachulukitsidwa ndi chizindikiro cha zochitika za anthu.

Amakhulupirira kuti kufulumizitsa kagayidwe kabwino kumathandiza kuchepetsa thupi, chifukwa kumapangitsa kuti thupi lizitentha mafuta ambiri. Zowonadi, kagayidwe kazinthu zochepetsa thupi nthawi zambiri kumachepetsa, popeza kuthamanga kwa kagayidwe kake kumatheka pokhapokha kuwonjezeka kwa calorie kudya ndikuwonjezera kuchuluka kwa zochitika zolimbitsa thupi - ndiye kuti, panthawi yophunzitsidwa mphamvu pakulimbitsa minofu.

Lipids Sinthani

Lipids ndi gawo limodzi mwa michere yamachilengedwe, mwachitsanzo, nembanemba wa plasma, ndi gawo la coenzymes komanso mphamvu zamagetsi. Lipids ndi ma hydrophobic kapena amphiphilic kwachilengedwe maselo osungunuka m'magulu a zinthu monga benzene kapena chloroform. Mafuta ndi gulu lalikulu la mankhwala omwe amaphatikiza mafuta acid ndi glycerin. Glycerol trihydric molekyulu ya mowa, yomwe imapangika maulalo atatu ovuta a ester ndi mamolekyulu atatu amafuta, amatchedwa triglyceride. Pamodzi ndi zotsalira zamafuta acid, lipids zovuta zimatha kuphatikiza, mwachitsanzo, sphingosine (sphingolipids), magulu a hydrophilic phosphate (mu phospholipids). Ma steroid, monga cholesterol, ndi gulu lina lalikulu la lipids.

Zosintha zamagulu

Ngale zitha kupezeka mozungulira kapena mozungulira ngati ma aldehydes kapena ma ketones, zimakhala ndi magulu angapo a hydroxyl. Zakudya zomanga thupi ndi ma molekyulu ambiri achilengedwe. Ma Carbohydrate amagwira ntchito zotsatirazi: kusungirako mphamvu ndi mayendedwe (wowuma, glycogen), kapangidwe (cell cell ,osein mu bowa ndi nyama). Ma monomers omwe amakonda kwambiri shuga ndi hexoses - shuga, fructose ndi galactose. Ma monosaccharides ndi gawo limodzi lama mizere kapena ma polysaccharides ambiri.

Kodi kufulumira kagayidwe?

Mphamvu yakudya yazakudya pachulukidwe la metabolism sizimveka bwino monga zimawonekera koyamba. Ngakhale pali zinthu zambiri zomwe zimapangitsa kuti metabolism ayambe kufooka - kuchokera kuzomwe zimayambitsa kulemera kwa shuga ndi zina zamafuta othamanga, kupita ku margarine ndimafuta ake - ndi zinthu zochepa chabe zomwe zimathandizira kagayidwe.

Popeza kagayidwe kazakudya kamthupi kamatha kukhala masiku angapo (mwachitsanzo, kukana chakudya chokwanira cha thupi, thupi limasinthira ku zakudya za ketogenic kwa masiku awiri okha), kagayidwe kake sikangakhale kolimbikitsa chifukwa chodya chinthu chimodzi chokha kapena kumwa supothie yamasamba kuti muchepetse thupi. Mwa zina, kuthamanga kwa kagayidwe ka mankhwala nthawi zambiri kumalumikizidwa ndi kulakalaka - zomwe sizothandiza nthawi zonse pakutsatira zakudya zamafuta.

Njira za metabolism za kuchepa thupi

Tiyerekeze kuti munthu wonenepa kwambiri wasankha kuchepa thupi, kuchita masewera olimbitsa thupi ndikuyamba kudya zakudya zopatsa mphamvu. Anawerenganso kuti kuti muchepetse kagayidwe kake mumayenera kumwa madzi ambiri ndikudya mananapulo, olemera mu "enoxmein" yowononga mafuta. Komabe, zotsatira zomaliza sizikhala kuthamangitsa kwa kagayidwe konse, koma kuthamanga kwake.

Cholinga chake ndichosavuta - thupi liyamba kutumiza zizindikilo kuti magawo olimbitsa thupi akuchulukira kwambiri, ndipo mphamvu zamagetsi kuchokera ku chakudya zatsika kwambiri. Ndipo munthu akamagwiritsa ntchito kwambiri masewera olimbitsa thupi komanso kudya mokwanira, amayamba kuganiza kuti "nthawi zoyipazi" zafika ndipo ndi nthawi yochepetsera kagayidwe kake kosunga mafuta - komanso, cortisol ndi leptin.

Kodi imathandizira bwanji kagayidwe?

Kuti muchepetse kunenepa, simuyenera kuyesa "kufalitsa" kagayidwe ndi kufulumizitsa metabolism momwe mungathere - choyambirira, muyenera kusamala kwambiri pazinthu zomwe thupi limalandira kuchokera ku kalori tsiku lililonse. Nthawi zambiri, kuchuluka kwa zakudya komanso kuwongolera kwa glycemic index yama carbohydrate omwe amadya zimayambitsa masinthidwe a metabolic.

Nthawi zambiri anthu omwe amachepetsa thupi amachepetsa mphamvu zolimbitsa thupi, pomwe amachepetsa kwambiri chakudya chomwe amadya. Mwachitsanzo, shuga wopezeka mu kola imodzi ya cola ndi wokwanira kuthamanga kwa mphindi 30 mpaka 40 - m'mawu ena, ndikosavuta kusiya mafuta osokoneza bongo chifukwa chofuna kupewetsa masewera olimbitsa thupi, kuyesera kuwotcha mafuta awa.

Sinthanthi Zosintha

Polymeric DNA ndi ma RNA mamolekyu amatali, maunyolo osakhazikika a ma nucleotide. Ma acids a nyukiliya amagwira ntchito yosungirako ndikukhazikitsa zidziwitso zamtundu zomwe zimachitika panthawi yopanga, kulemba, kutanthauzira, ndi mapuloteni a biosynthesis. Zambiri zolembedwa mu ma nikic acid zimatetezedwa kuti zisasinthidwe ndi makina obwereza ndipo zimachulukitsidwa ndi kubwereza kwa DNA.

Ma virus ena ali ndi genome wokhala ndi RNA. Mwachitsanzo, ma virus a human immunodeficiency amagwiritsa ntchito cholembera china kuti apange template ya DNA kuchokera ku genNA yake yomwe ili ndi RNA. Ma molekyulu ena a RNA ali ndi katundu othandizira (ribozymes) ndipo ali gawo la spliceosomes ndi ribosomes.

Ma nyukiliya ndi zinthu zophatikiza ndi maziko a nayitrogeni kuti mupange shuga. Zitsanzo za maziko a nayitrogeni ndizophatikiza zomwe zimakhala ndi heterocyclic - zotengera za purines ndi pyrimidines. Ma nucleotide ena amathandizanso ngati ma coenzymes pamagulu omwe amagwira ntchito posinthira magulu.

Coenzymes Sinthani

Metabolism imaphatikizapo mitundu yambiri yamachitidwe omwe amachititsa, ambiri omwe amagwirizana ndi mitundu ingapo yayikulu yogwira ntchito yosamutsa gulu. Ma coenzymes amagwiritsidwa ntchito kusamutsa magulu omwe amagwira ntchito pakati pa ma enzymes omwe amathandizira kusintha kwa mankhwala. Kalasi iliyonse yamachitidwe amtundu wa kusunthira kwamagulu omwe amagwira ntchito amathandizidwa ndi ma enzymes amtundu wawo ndi ma cofactors awo.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ndi amodzi mwa ma coenzymes apakati, gwero lamphamvu la mphamvu yama cell. Nucleotide iyi imagwiritsidwa ntchito kusamutsa mphamvu zamagetsi zomwe zimasungidwa mu macroergic bind pakati pamagetsi osiyanasiyana. M'maselo, mumakhala ndalama zochepa za ATP, zomwe zimapangidwanso kosintha kuchokera ku ADP ndi AMP. Thupi laumunthu limadya misa ya ATP patsiku, lofanana ndi kuchuluka kwa thupi lake lomwe. ATP imagwira ntchito ngati kulumikizana pakati pa catabolism ndi anabolism: ndi zochita za catabolic, ATP imapangidwa, ndi zochita za anabolic, mphamvu zimatha. ATP imagwiranso ntchito monga wopereka gulu la phosphate mu phosphorylation reaction.

Mavitamini ndi ochepera maselo olemera organic omwe amafunikira pang'ono, mwachitsanzo, mavitamini ambiri sanapangidwe mwa anthu, koma amapezeka ndi chakudya kapena microflora ya m'mimba. Mu thupi la munthu, mavitamini ambiri ndi ma cofactors a ma enzymes. Mavitamini ambiri amakhala ndi zochita zosintha mwachilengedwe, mwachitsanzo, mavitamini onse osungunuka am'madzi mu maselo amakhala ndi phosphorylated kapena kuphatikizidwa ndi ma nucleotides. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) ndi zotumphukira za vitamini B₃ (niacin), ndipo ndi coenzyme wofunikira - wolandila hydrogen. Mazana a michere yama dehydrogenase yosiyanasiyana imachotsa maelekitirodi ndi ma molekyulu amtunduwo ndikuwasamutsa ku molekyu ya NAD +, ndikuyisintha kukhala NADH. Ma oxidized mawonekedwe a coenzyme ndi gawo lapansi pazomwe zimachepetsa mu cell. NAD mu cell ilipo mu mitundu iwiri yogwirizana ya NADH ndi NADPH. NAD + / NADH ndiyofunikira kwambiri pakuchitapo kanthu kwa catabolic, ndipo NADP + / NADPH imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pama anabolic reaction.

Zinthu Zosasintha ndi Cofactors Sinthani

Zinthu zopanda pake zimagwira ntchito yofunika kwambiri mu metabolism. Pafupifupi 99% ya unyinji wa nyama zopangidwa ndi kaboni, nayitrogeni, calcium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, potaziyamu, hydrogen, phosphorous, oksijeni ndi sulufule. Ma organic achilengedwe ofunikira kwambiri (mapuloteni, mafuta, ma carbohydrate ndi ma nucleic acid) amakhala ndi mpweya wambiri, hydrogen, oxygen, nayitrogeni ndi phosphorous.

Zinthu zambiri zopanda pake ndi ma ionic electrolyte. Ma ayoni ofunikira kwambiri m'thupi ndi sodium, potaziyamu, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphates ndi bicarbonates. Mulingo woyenera wa minyewa mkati mwa selo ndi ma extracellular sing'anga umatsimikizira kuthamanga kwa osmotic ndi pH. Kuzindikira kwa Ion kumathandizanso kwambiri pakugwira ntchito yamitsempha yama minyewa komanso minofu. Kuchitikira mu minofu yabwino kumachitika chifukwa cha kusinthana kwa ma ayoni pakati pa madzi amkati ndi ma cytoplasm. Ma electrolyte amalowa ndikutuluka mu cell kudzera ma ion munjira ya membrane wa plasma. Mwachitsanzo, pakakonzedwa minofu, calcium, sodium, ndi potaziyamu amasuntha mu membrane wa plasma, cytoplasm, ndi T-tub.

Zitsulo zosintha mthupi ndizojambula, zinc ndi chitsulo ndizofala kwambiri. Zitsulozi zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi mapuloteni ena (mwachitsanzo, ma enzymes ngati cofactors) ndipo ndizofunikira pakuwongolera ntchito ya michere ndi mapuloteni onyamula. Ma Cofactor a enema nthawi zambiri amakhala omangidwa kumapuloteni ena, komabe, amatha kusinthidwa panthawi yamatumbo, ndipo pambuyo pa catalysis nthawi zonse amabwerera ku chikhalidwe chawo choyambirira (sichimamwedwa). Zitsulo zosakira zimatengedwa ndi thupi pogwiritsa ntchito mapuloteni apadera onyamula ndipo sizipezeka m'thupi popanda ufulu, chifukwa zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi mapuloteni ena onyamula (mwachitsanzo, ferritin kapena metallothioneins).

Zamoyo zonse zitha kugawidwa m'magulu akulu asanu ndi atatu, kutengera imodzi yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito: gwero lamphamvu, gwero la mpweya, komanso wopereka ma elekitoni (oxidizable substrate).

1. Monga gwero lamphamvu, zamoyozo zimatha kugwiritsa ntchito: mphamvu yakuwala (chithunzi) kapena mphamvu yamagulu am'magazi (chemo) Kuphatikiza apo, kufotokozera zinthu za parasitic zogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zamagetsi zomwe zilimo, mawuwo paratroph.
2. Monga wopereka ma elekitironi (wothandizira kuchepetsa), zolengedwa zitha kugwiritsa ntchito: zinthu zopanda pake (kaponyedwe) kapenachiwalo).
3. Monga gwero la kaboni, zinthu zamoyo zimagwiritsa ntchito: kaboni dayokisi (auto) kapenahetero-) Nthawi zina mawu auto ndi heterotroph amagwiritsidwa ntchito pokhudzana ndi zinthu zina zomwe ndi gawo la ma molekyulu achilengedwe mu mawonekedwe ochepetsedwa (mwachitsanzo, nitrogen, sulfure). Potere, zolengedwa "nitrogen-autotrophic" ndizamoyo zomwe zimagwiritsa ntchito zinthu zopangidwa ndi oxididi ngati gwero la nayitrogeni (mwachitsanzo, mbewu, zimatha kutsitsa nitrate). Ndipo "nitrogen heterotrophic" ndi zinthu zomwe sizingatheke kutsata mitundu ya nayitrogeni ndikugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ena monga gwero lake (mwachitsanzo, nyama zomwe amino acid zimachokera ku nayitrogeni).

Dzina la mtundu wa metabolism limapangidwa ndikuwonjezera mizu yolingana ndikuwonjezera kumapeto kwa muzu -troph-. Gome likuwonetsa mitundu ya metabolism yomwe ingakhale ndi zitsanzo:

• Olemba ena amagwiritsa ntchito -malovu madzi akamagwira ngati wopereka ma elekitironi.

Gawoli linapangidwa ndi gulu la olemba (A. Lvov, C. van Nil, F. J. Ryan, E. Tatem) ndipo linavomerezedwa pamsonkhano wa 11 ku labour ya Cold Spring Harbor ndipo poyambirira adagwiritsidwa ntchito pofotokoza mitundu yazakudya za tizilombo. Komabe, pano amagwiritsidwa ntchito pofotokoza kagayidwe ka zinthu zina.

Zikuwonekeratu kuchokera pagome kuti mphamvu ya metabolic ya prokaryotes imasiyana kwambiri poyerekeza ndi eukaryotes, omwe amadziwika ndi mitundu ya photolithoautotrophic ndi chemoorganoheterotrophic metabolism.

Tiyenera kudziwa kuti mitundu ina ya tizilombo tingayerekeze, kutengera chilengedwe (kuyatsa, kupezeka kwa zinthu zachilengedwe ndi zina zambiri). Kuphatikiza uku kwa mitundu ingapo ya kagayidwe kamafotokozedwa ngati mixotrophy.

Mukamagwiritsira ntchito kagawoli pazinthu zamitundu mitundu, ndikofunikira kumvetsetsa kuti mkati mwa chinthu chimodzi chokha mumatha kukhala maselo omwe amasiyana mu mtundu wa metabolism. Chifukwa chake maselo amlengalenga, ziwonetsero za zithunzi zamitundu yambiri zimadziwika ndi mtundu wa metabolol, pomwe maselo a ziwalo zapansi panthaka amafotokozedwa ngati chemoorganoterotrophic. Monga momwe zimakhalira ndi ma tizilombo tosiyanasiyana, m'mene zinthu zachilengedwe, gawo lachitukuko, komanso kayendedwe ka zinthu zasinthika, mtundu wa kagayidwe ka maselo a zinthu zamitundu mitundu umatha kusintha. Mwachitsanzo, mumdima komanso pamera mbewu, maselo a mbewu zapamwamba amapanga mtundu wa chemo-organo-heterotrophic.

Metabolism imatchedwa metabolic process momwe ma cell mamolekyulu akuluakulu a shuga, mafuta, ma amino acid amawonongeka. Panthawi ya catabolism, mamolekyulu osavuta amapangidwa omwe amafunikira kusintha kwa anabolism (biosynthesis). Nthawi zambiri, zimakhala munthawi ya zochita za catabolism kuti thupi limagwirira ntchito mphamvu, kumasulira mphamvu zamagetsi zomwe zimapangidwa pang'onopang'ono chakudya, m'mitundu yomwe ingapezeke: mu mawonekedwe a ATP, kuchepa kwa coenzymes, ndi mphamvu ya transmembrane electrochemical. Mawu akuti catabolism safanana ndi "mphamvu ya metabolism": m'magulu ambiri (mwachitsanzo, ma phototrophs), njira zazikulu zosungirako mphamvu sizikugwirizana mwachindunji ndi kuwonongeka kwa mamolekyulu a organic. Kugawika kwa zolengedwa mwa mtundu wa kagayidwe kachakudya kumatha kudalira komwe kumachokera mphamvu, monga zikuwonekera m'gawo lapitalo. Ma chemotrophs amagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zamagetsi zam'makina, ndipo ma phototrophs amawononga mphamvu ya dzuwa. Komabe, mitundu yonse iyi ya kagayidwe imadalira mphamvu ya redox yomwe imalumikizidwa ndi kusuntha kwa ma elekitiroyiti kuchokera kwa opereka ma molekyulu, monga ma mamolekyulu, madzi, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, kuvomereza mamolekyulu monga oxygen, nitrate kapena sulfate. Mu nyama, izi zimaphatikizira kuphatikizika kwa mamolekyulu osakanikirana achilengedwe kukhala osavuta, monga kaboni dayoksidi ndi madzi. Mu zinthu zochititsa chidwi - zomera ndi cyanobacteria - kusintha kwa ma elekitironi sikukutulutsa mphamvu, koma kumagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati njira yosungira mphamvu yochokera ku dzuwa.

Catabolism mu nyama itha kugawidwa m'magawo atatu akuluakulu. Choyamba, mamolekyulu akuluakulu monga mapuloteni, ma polysaccharides, ndi lipids amagwera m'magawo ang'onoang'ono kunja kwa maselo. Kuphatikiza apo, mamolekyu ang'onoang'ono amalowa m'maselo ndikupanga ma molekyulu ang'onoang'ono, mwachitsanzo, acetyl-CoA. Nawonso gulu la acetyl la coenzyme A oxidize kuti lithe madzi ndi kaboni diokosijini muzowongolera cha Krebs ndi tcheni chopumira, kumasula mphamvu zomwe zimasungidwa mu mawonekedwe a ATP.

Chimbudzi

Ma macromolecules monga wowuma, cellulose kapena mapuloteni ayenera kuphwanyidwa pazinthu zazing'ono asanagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi maselo. Magulu angapo a ma enzymes amatenga nawo mbali pakuwonongeka: ma protein, omwe amaphwanya mapuloteni kupita ku ma peptides ndi ma amino acid, glycosidases, omwe amaphwanya polysaccharides ku oligo- ndi monosaccharides.

Ma tizilombo tosiyanasiyana tating'ono timene timabowoleza ma hydrolytic mu malo ozungulira, omwe ndi osiyana ndi nyama zomwe zimatulutsa michere yotereyi m'maselo apadera a glandular. Amino acid ndi monosaccharides, omwe amachitika chifukwa cha zochita za ma enzymes amkati, kenaka lekani maselo ogwiritsa ntchito mayendedwe okangalika.

Kupeza Mphamvu Sinthani

Pa chakudya cha carabolhydrate catabolism, dzuwa zovuta zimagwera ma monosaccharides, omwe amalowetsedwa ndi maselo. Mukakhala mkati, mashuga (mwachitsanzo, shuga ndi fructose) amasinthidwa kukhala pyruvate panthawi ya glycolysis, ndipo kuchuluka kwa ATP kumapangidwa. Pyruvic acid (pyruvate) ndi yapakatikati m'njira zingapo za metabolic. Njira yayikulu ya kagayidwe ka pyruvate ndikutembenukira ku acetyl-CoA ndipo kenako kuzungulira kwa tricarboxylic acid. Nthawi yomweyo, gawo lamphamvu limasungidwa mumjikelezo wa Krebs mu mawonekedwe a ATP, ndipo mamolekyule a NADH ndi FAD nawonso amabwezeretsedwa. Mukukonzedwa kwa glycolysis ndi kuzungulira kwa tricarboxylic acid, kaboni dayokisai limapangidwa, komwe ndi chinthu chopangidwa ndi moyo. Pansi pa anaerobic, lactate imapangidwa kuchokera ku pyruvate ndi gawo la lactate dehydrogenase enzyme, ndipo NADH imaphatikizidwa ndi NAD +, yomwe imagwiritsidwanso ntchito mu glycolysis reaction. Palinso njira ina yothandizira kagayidwe ka monosaccharides - njira ya pentose phosphate, pomwe mphamvu imasungidwa mu mawonekedwe a coenzyme NADPH ndi pentoses amapangidwa, mwachitsanzo, nthiti, yomwe ndiyofunikira pakuphatikizidwa kwa ma nucleic acid.

Mafuta omwe ali gawo loyamba la catabolism amadzidulira mu mafuta acids omasuka ndi glycerin. Mafuta acid amathyoledwa panthawi ya beta oxidation kuti apange acetyl-CoA, yomwe imapangidwanso modutsa mkombero wa Krebs, kapena ikupita ku mitundu yatsopano yamafuta acids. Mafuta acids amatulutsa mphamvu zambiri kuposa chakudya, chifukwa mafuta amakhala ndi maatomu a hydrogen ambiri momwe amapangidwira.

Amino acids mwina amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuphatikiza mapuloteni ndi ma biomolecule ena, kapena amawaphatikiza ndi urea, kaboni dayokisi ndipo amagwira ntchito ngati mphamvu. Njira ya oxidative ya amino acid catabolism imayamba ndi kuchotsedwa kwa gulu la amino ndi transaminase enzymes. Magulu a Amino amagwiritsidwa ntchito mozungulira mu urea, magulu a amino omwe akusowa amino amatchedwa keto acids. Ma acid ena a keto ndi apakatikati pamagulu a Krebs. Mwachitsanzo, kupukusa kwa glutamate kumatulutsa alpha-ketoglutaric acid. Glycogenic amino acids amathanso kusinthidwa kukhala glucose mu gluconeogenesis reaction.

Phosphorylation Oxidative

Mu phosphorylation ya oxidative, ma elekitoni omwe amachotsedwa ku mamolekyulu azakudya mu njira za metabolic (mwachitsanzo, muzungulira wa Krebs) amasamutsidwa kupita ku okosijeni, ndipo mphamvu yomwe idatulutsidwa imagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga ATP. Mu eukaryotes, njirayi imagwiridwa ndikupanga nawo mapuloteni angapo okhazikika mum membrane, omwe amatchedwa kupuma kwa ma elekitironi. M'mapuloteni, mapuloteniwa amapezeka mkati mwa khoma la maselo. Mapuloteni a ma elekitirodi osunthira ma elekitironi amagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zomwe zimapezeka pochotsa ma elekitironi kuchoka m'molekyulu (mwachitsanzo NADH) kupita ku oksijeni kupopera ma protoni kudzera mu umuna.

Puloponi ikapakidwa, kusiyanasiyana komwe kumayambitsa ma hydrogen ions kumapangidwa ndikuwunika kwa magetsi. Mphamvu iyi imabweza ma protoni kubwerera ku mitochondria kudzera m'munsi mwa ATP synthase. Kuyenda kwa ma protoni kumapangitsa kuti mphete kuchokera ku c-subunits ya enzyme itembenuke, chifukwa chomwe malo omwe amagwira ntchito a synthase amasintha mawonekedwe ake ndi phosphorylates adenosine diphosphate, amasintha kukhala ATP.

Mphamvu Zosintha

Hemolithotrophs amatchedwa prokaryotes, omwe ali ndi mtundu wapadera wa kagayidwe, momwe mphamvu imapangidwira chifukwa cha oxidation wa mankhwala opangira zinthu. Chemolithotrophs imatha kuphatikiza mamolekyulu hydrogen, sulufule (mwachitsanzo, sulfide, hydrogen sulfide ndi isorganic thiosulfates), iron (II) oxide kapena ammonia. Poterepa, mphamvu kuchokera ku makutidwe ndi okosijeni a zinthu izi zimapangidwa ndi omwe amavomereza ma elekitroniki, monga okosijeni kapena nitrites. Njira zopezera mphamvu kuchokera kuzinthu zopanda kanthu zimagwira gawo lofunikira pazinthu zachilengedwe monga acetogeneis, nitrification, ndi denitrification.

Sinthani ya Mphamvu Yadzuwa

Mphamvu yakuwala kwa dzuwa imalowetsedwa ndi zomera, cyanobacteria, mabakiteriya ofiirira, mabakiteriya a sulfure wobiriwira, ndi protozoa ina. Njirayi imaphatikizidwa nthawi zambiri ndikusintha kwa kaboni dayokisaidi kukhala zinthu zina ngati mbali ya photosynthesis (onani pansipa). Njira zamagetsi zamagetsi ndikuyika kusintha kwa kaboni mu prokaryotes zina zimatha kugwira ntchito mosiyana (mwachitsanzo, mabakiteriya ofiira komanso obiriwira).

M'magulu ambiri, kuyamwa kwa mphamvu yoyendera mphamvu ya dzuwa kumakhala kofanana ndi oxidative phosphorylation, chifukwa munthawiyi mphamvu zimasungidwa momwe zimapangidwira proton yaukazitape ndipo kuyendetsa kwa proton kumayambitsa kapangidwe ka ATP. Ma elekitironi omwe amafunikira kuti asinthanenso ndi awa amachokera ku mapuloteni otuta omwe amatchedwa photosynthetic reaction vituo (mwachitsanzo, ma rhodopsins). Kutengera mitundu ya zithunzi zomwe zimapanga zithunzi, mitundu iwiri ya malo ochitira zinthu imayikidwa; pakadali pano mabakiteriya ambiri okhala ndi mitundu ali ndi mtundu umodzi, pomwe mbewu ndi cyanobacteria ndi ziwiri.

M'minda, algae ndi cyanobacteria, photosystem II imagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu yakuwala kuti ichotse ma elekitironi m'madzi, ndi okosijeni wa okosijeni omwe amatulutsidwa ngati zomwe zimachitika. Ma elekitirodiwo kenaka amalowa mu b6f cytochrome tata, yomwe imagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu kupopera mapuloteni kudzera mwa membrane wa thylakoid mu chloroplasts. Mothandizidwa ndi gradient ya electrochemical, mapuloteni amasunthira kumbuyo kudzera mu membrane ndi trigger ATP synthase. Ma elekitoniwo amapita kudzera mu mawonekedwe a I ndipo amatha kugwiritsidwa ntchito kukonzanso NADP + coenzyme, kuti igwiritsidwe ntchito kuzungulira kwa Calvin, kapena kubwezeretsanso kupanga mamolekyulu a ATP owonjezera.

Chinyengo - ya kagayidwe kachakudya njira ya biosynthesis ya zovuta mamolekyulu ndi kuwononga mphamvu. Ma mamolekyu ovuta omwe amapanga ma cellular amapangidwa mwanjira zosiyanasiyana kuchokera kutsamba losavuta. Kukhulupirira Anabolism kumaphatikizapo magawo atatu akuluakulu, iliyonse yomwe imapangidwira ndi enzyme yapadera. Pa gawo loyamba, mamolekyulu am'mbuyomu amapangidwa, mwachitsanzo, ma amino acid, monosaccharides, terpenoids ndi nucleotides. Pa gawo lachiwiri, otsogola ogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu za ATP amasinthidwa kukhala mitundu yoyendetsedwa. Pa gawo lachitatu, ma monomer omwe adalowetsedwa amaphatikizidwa ndi mamolekyu ambiri, mwachitsanzo, mapuloteni, ma polysaccharides, lipids ndi ma nucleic acids.

Si zinthu zonse zamoyo zomwe zimatha kuphatikizira mamolekyulu onse azamoyo. Ma Autotrophs (mwachitsanzo, mbewu) amatha kupanga ma mamolekyulu ovuta kuwumbika kuchokera kuzinthu zosavuta zopanda zinthu zochepa monga mpweya woipa komanso madzi. Ma heterotroph amafunika gwero lazinthu zovuta kwambiri, monga monosaccharides ndi amino acid, kuti apange mamolekyulu ovuta kwambiri. Zamoyo zimagawidwa malinga ndi mphamvu zawo zazikulu: zojambula za zithunzi ndi zithunzi zimalandira mphamvu kuchokera ku kuwala kwa dzuwa, pomwe chemoautotrophs ndi chemoheterotrophs zimalandira mphamvu kuchokera kuzomwe zimapanga oxidation.

Carbon Binging Sinthani

Photosynthesis ndimayendedwe a biosynthesis a shuga ochokera ku kaboni dayokisi, momwe mphamvu yofunikira imachokera mu dzuwa. Zomera, cyanobacteria ndi algae, kujambula kwa madzi kumachitika mkati mwa photosynthesis ya oksijeni, pomwe mpweya umatulutsidwa ngati chinthu. Kusintha CO₂ 3-phosphoglycerate imagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu ya ATP ndi NADP yosungidwa pazithunzi. Zomwe zimapanga kaboni zimachitika pogwiritsa ntchito enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase ndipo ndi gawo la kuzungulira kwa Calvin. Mitundu itatu ya photosynthesis imasungidwa m'mazomera - m'njira yama mamolekyulu atatu a mpweya, munjira ya ma molekyulu anayi a mpweya (C4), ndi CAM photosynthesis. Mitundu itatu ya photosynthesis imasiyana m'njira yomwe kaboni diokosi umamanga ndi kulowa kwake mu kayendedwe ka Calvin; muzomera za C3, CO chomangira₂ limapezeka mwachindunji mjikelezo la Calvin, ndipo pa C4 ndi CAM CO₂ kale ophatikizidwa ndi mankhwala ena. Mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya photosynthesis imasinthasintha ndi kuwala kwamphamvu kwa dzuwa ndi malo owuma.

M'malo opangira zithunzi, momwe magesi amamangirira zimasiyana. Mpweya wa kaboni ukhoza kukhazikitsidwa mozungulira kayendedwe ka Calvin, munthawi yosinthira ya Krebs, kapena machitidwe a acetyl-CoA carboxylation. Prokaryotes - chemoautotrophs imamanganso CO₂ kupyola mu kayendedwe ka Calvin, koma mphamvu kuchokera kuzinthu zosapangika imagwiritsidwa ntchito pochita zomwe zimachitika.

Carbohydrate ndi Glycans Sinthani

Pogwiritsa ntchito shuga anabolism, ma organic acid osavuta amatha kusinthidwa kukhala ma monosaccharides, mwachitsanzo, shuga, kenako amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupangira polysaccharides, monga wowuma. Kupanga kwa glucose kuchokera ku mankhwala monga pyruvate, lactate, glycerin, 3-phosphoglycerate ndi amino acid amatchedwa gluconeogeneis. Mukukonzekera gluconeogenesis, pyruvate imasinthidwa kukhala glucose-6-phosphate kudzera muzinthu zingapo zapakatikati, zambiri zomwe zimapangidwa nthawi ya glycolysis. Komabe, gluconeogenesis sikuti amangokhala glycolysis kumbali ina, chifukwa maukadaulo angapo amomwe amachititsa ma enzymes apadera, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti azitha kuyang'anira pawokha machitidwe a mapangidwe ndi kuwonongeka kwa shuga.

Zamoyo zambiri zimasunga michere mu ma lipids ndi mafuta, komabe, ma vertebrates alibe ma enzymes omwe amachititsa kuti asinthe a acetyl-CoA (mankhwala a metabolism acid) akhale pyruvate (gawo la gluconeogenesis). Pambuyo panjala yotalikirapo, ma vertebrates amayamba kupanga matupi a ketone kuchokera ku mafuta acids, omwe amatha kusintha glucose m'misempha monga ubongo. Mu mbewu ndi mabakiteriya, vuto la metabolic limathetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito gawo la glyoxylate, lomwe limadutsa gawo la decarboxylation mu citric acid mzunguko ndikukulolani kuti musinthe acetyl-CoA kukhala oxaloacetate, kenako ndikugwiritsira ntchito kaphatikizidwe ka shuga.

Polysaccharides amagwira ntchito zogwiritsira ntchito ndi metabolic, ndipo amathanso kuphatikizidwa ndi lipids (glycolipids) ndi mapuloteni (glycoproteins) amagwiritsa ntchito ma enzymes oligosaccharide.

Mafuta Acids, Isoprenoids, ndi Steroids Sinthani

Mafuta acids amapangidwa ndi mafuta acid synthases kuchokera ku acetyl-CoA. Mafupa amtundu wa kaboni wa mafuta acids amawonjezeredwa machitidwe azomwe zimachitika momwe gulu la acetyl limalumikizirana, ndiye gulu la carbonyl limatsitsidwa ku gulu la hydroxyl, kenako kuchepa kwamadzi ndi kuchira kotsatirako. Mafuta enema a biosynthesis michere imayikidwa m'magulu awiri: nyama ndi bowa, mphamvu zonse za mafuta zomwe zimapangidwa zimapangidwa ndi mtundu umodzi wa puloteni woyamba I, m'mapulogalamu azomera ndi mabakiteriya, mtundu uliwonse umagwidwa ndi ma enzyme amtundu II.

Terpenes ndi terpenoids ndikuyimira gulu lalikulu kwambiri lazinthu zachilengedwe zazitsamba. Oyimira gulu lino la zinthu ndi zotumphukira za isopren ndipo amapangidwa kuchokera ku ma activated a isopentyl pyrophosphate ndi dimethylallyl pyrophosphate, omwe, amapangidwa mosiyanasiyana metabolic reaction. Mu nyama ndi archaea, isopentyl pyrophosphate ndi dimethylallyl pyrophosphate amapangidwira kuchokera ku acetyl-CoA munjira yotchedwa mevalonate, pomwe mu zomera ndi mabakiteriya, pyruvate ndi glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ndi gawo lapansi la njira yosakhala yotalikirapo. Mu zochita za steroid biosynthesis, mamolekyu a isoprene amaphatikizana ndikupanga squalene, omwe amapanga mawonekedwe a cyclic ndi mapangidwe a lanosterol. Lanosterol imatha kusinthidwa kukhala ma steroid ena, monga cholesterol ndi ergosterol.

Magulugi Sinthani

Zamoyo zimasiyana mu kuthekera kwawo pakupanga ma 20 amino acid wamba. Mabakiteriya ambiri ndi mbewu amatha kusakaniza ma 20 onse, koma zolengedwa zomwe zimayamwa zimatha kupanga ma amino acid ofunikira 10 okha. Chifukwa chake, pankhani ya zinyama, ma amino acid ofunika 9 ayenera kupezeka ku chakudya. Ma amino acid onse amapangidwa kuchokera ku glycolysis wapakatikati, kuzungulira kwa citric acid, kapena njira ya pentose monophosphate. Kusamutsa kwamagulu amino kuchokera ku amino acid kupita ku alpha-keto acid kumatchedwa transamination. Opereka gulu la Amino ndi osusuka komanso glutamine.

Amino acid omwe amalumikizidwa ndi ma peptide bond amapanga mapuloteni. Puloteni iliyonse imakhala ndi zotsalira za amino acid zotsalira (puloteni yoyambirira ya mapuloteni). Monga momwe zilembo za zilembo zimatha kuphatikizidwa ndikupanga mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya mawu, ma amino acid amatha kumangiriza mosiyanasiyana kapena zingapo ndikupanga mapuloteni osiyanasiyana. Ma aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzyme amathandizira kuwonjezeka kwa ATP kwa amino acid kuti apange tRNA yokhala ndi ma ester, ndipo aminoacyl-tRNA amapangidwa. Ma Aminoacyl-tRNA ndi magawo a ma ribosomes omwe amaphatikiza ma amino acid m'matumba amtundu wa polypeptide ogwiritsa ntchito matrix a mRNA.